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JETHRO TULL. 

Born 1674 ; died 1741. His methods of soil tillage lie at the foundation of the 

modern system of dry-farming. 



DRY- FARMING 



A SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE 



FOR 



COUNTRIES UNDER A LOW RAINFALL 



BY 



JOHN A. WIDTSOE, A.M., Ph.D. 

PRESIDENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE 
OF UTAH 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1911 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1911, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1911. 



J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



CCI.A280363 






TO 

LEAH 

THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED 

JUNE 1, 1910 



PREFACE 

Nearly six tenths of the earth's land surface 
receive an annual rainfall of less than twenty 
inches, and can be reclaimed for agricultural pur- 
poses only by irrigation and dry-farming. A per- 
fected world-system of irrigation will convert about 
one tenth of this vast area into an incomparably 
fruitful garden, leaving about one half of the 
earth's land surface to be reclaimed, if at all, by 
the methods of dry-farming. The noble system 
of modern agriculture has been constructed almost 
wholly in countries of abundant rainfall, and its 
applications are those demanded for the agricul- 
tural development of humid regions. Until re- 
cently, irrigation was given scant attention, and 
dry-farming, with its world problem of conquering 
one half of the earth, was not considered. These 
facts furnish the apology for the writing of this 
book. 

One volume, only, in this world of many books, 
and that less than a year old, is devoted to the 
exposition of the accepted dry-farm practices of 
to-day. 

vii 



Viil PREFACE 

The book now offered is the first attempt to 
assemble and ors^anize the known facts of science 
in their relation to the profitable production of 
plants, without irrigation, in regions of hmited 
rainfall. The needs of the actual farmer, who 
must understand the princi23les before his practices 
can be wholly satisfactory, have been kept in view 
primarily ; but it is hoped that the enlarging group 
of dry-farm investigators will also be helped by 
this presentation of the principles of dry-farming. 
The subject is now growing so raj)idly that there 
will soon be room for two classes of treatment: 
one for the farmer, and one for the technical 
student. 

This book has been written far from large 
libraries, and the material has been drawn from 
the available sources. Specific references are not 
given in the text, but the names of investigators 
or institutions are found with nearly all state- 
ments of fact. The files of the Experiment Station 
Record and Der Jahresbericht der Agrikultur 
Chemie have taken the place of the more desirable 
original publications. Free use has been made 
of the publications of the experiment stations and 
the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Inspiration and suggestions have been sought and 
found constantly in the works of the princes of 
American soil investigation, Hilg-ard of California 



PREFACE IX 

and King of Wisconsin. I am under deep obliga- 
tion, for assistance rendered, to numerous friends 
in all parts of the country, especially to Professor 
L. A. Merrill, with, whom I have collaborated for 
many years in the study of the possibilities of 
dry-farming in Western America. 

The possibilities of dry-farming are stupendous. 
In the strength of youth we may have felt envi- 
ous of the great ones of old ; of Columbus looking 
upon the shadow of the greatest continent ; of 
Balboa shouting greetings to the resting Pacific ; 
of Father Escalante, pondering upon the mystery 
of the world, alone, near the shores of America's 
Dead Sea. We need harbor no such envyings, for 
in the conquest of the nonirrigated and nonirriga- 
ble desert are offered as fine opportunities as the 
world has known to the makers and shakers of 
empires. We stand before an undiscovered land ; 
throuo;h the restless, ascending^ currents of heated 
desert air the vision comes and s^oes. With striv- 
ino^ eves the desert is seen covered with blossomino: 
fields, with churches and homes and schools, and, 
in the distance, w4th the vision is heard the 
laughter of happy children. 

The desert will be conquered. 

JOHN A. WIDTSOE. 
June 1, 1910, 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface ........ . . . vii 

List of Illustrations ........ xix 



CHAPTER I 

Introduction — Dry-farming Defined ..... 1-10 

Dry- vs. Humid-farming .4 

The Problems of Dry-farming .6 

CHAPTER II 

Thb Theoretical Basis of Dry-farming . . . 11-21 

Water required for One Pound of Dry Matter ... 12 
Crop-producing Power of Rainfall 18 

CHAPTER III 
Dry-farm Areas— -Rainfall ...... 22-34 

Arid, Semiarid, and Sub-humid 24 

Precipitation of the Dry-farm Territory of the United States 25 

Area of the Dry-farm Territory of the United States . . 26 

Dry-farm Area of the World 32 

CHAPTER IV 
Dry-farm Areas — General Climatic Features . . 35-49 

Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall 38 

Snowfall 42 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Temperature . • • .42 

Kelative Humidity 45 

Sunshine 46 

Winds 47 

Summary of Features 48 

Drouth 49 



CHAPTER V 

Dry-farm Soils 50-80 

The Formation of Soils 51 

Physical Agencies 

Chemical Agencies 
Characteristics of Arid Soils 56 

Clay 

Sand 

Humus 

Soil and Subsoil 

Hardpan 

Leaching 

Alkali Soils 

Plant-food Content 

Summary of Characteristics 
Soil Divisions 74 

Great Plains District 

Columbia River District 

Great Basin District 

Colorado River District 

California District 
The Judging of Soils 78 

CHAPTER VI 

The Root-systems or Plants 81-93 

Functions of Roots . . 81 

Kinds of Roots . . . c 82 



CONTENTS 



Xlll 



PAGE 

Extent of Roots 84 

Depth of Root Penetration 86 



CHAPTER VII 
Storing Water in the Soil 



94-129 



Alway's Demonstration 

Wtiat becomes of the Rainfall ? 

The Run-off .... 

The Structure of Soils . 

Pore-space of Soils 

Hygroscopic Soil-water . 

Gravitational Water 

Capillary Soil-water 

Field Capacity of Soils for Capillary Water . 

Downward Movement of Soil-moisture . 

Importance of a Moist Subsoil 

To what extent is the Rainfall stored in Soils ? 

The Fallow 

Deep Plowing for Water Storage . 
Fall Plowing for Water Storage . 



95 

97 

98 

99 

101 

102 

104 

106 

107 

111 

116 

119 

122 

125 

126 



CHAPTER VIII 



Regulating the Evaporation . 

The Formation of Water Vapor . 
Conditions of Evaporation from Soils . 
Loss by Evaporation chiefly at the Surface 
How Soil-water reaches the Surface 
The Effect of Rapid Top-drying of Soils 
The Effect of Shading .... 
The Effect of Tillage .... 
Depth of Cultivation .... 
When to Cultivate or Till 



130-164 



132 
136 
139 
141 
147 
150 
152 
157 
158 



XIV 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER IX 

Regulating the Transpiration 

How Water leaves the Soil . 

Absorption 

Movement of Water through the Plant 
The Work of Leaves .... 

Transpiration 

Conditions influencing Transpiration 
Plant-food and Transpiration 
Transpiration for a Pound of Dry Matter 
Methods of controlling Transpiration . 



PAGB 

165-192 



165 
166 
170 
171 
174 
175 
180 
182 
186 



CHAPTER X 
Plowing and Fallowing ... .... 193-204 

CHAPTER XI 

Sowing and Harvesting 205-230 

Conditions of Germination ....... 206 

Time to Sow 212 

Depth of Seeding 220 

Quantity to Sow 222 

Method of Sowing 225 

The Care of the Crop 226 

Harvesting 228 



CHAPTER XII 



Crops for Dry-farming 

Importance of Right Crops 
Wheat .... 
Other Small Grains 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Emmer 



232-256 

. 232 
. 234 
. 241 



CONTENTS 



XV 



Corn .... 

Sorghums 

Lucern or Alfalfa . 

Other Leguminous Crops 

Trees and Shrubs . 

Potatoes 

Miscellaneous 



PAGE 

243 
244 
247 
249 
251 
254 
254 



CHAPTER XIII 

The Composition of Dry-farm Crops 

Proportion of Parts of Dry-farm Plants 

The Water in Dry -farm Crops 

The Nutritive Substances in Crops 

Variations in Composition due to Water-supply 

Climate and Composition .... 

A Reason for Variation in Composition 

Nutritive Value of Dry-farm Straw, Hay, and Flour 

Future Needs ....... 



257-279 
258 
262 
264 
267 
271 
274 
275 
277 



CHAPTER XIV 

Maintaining the Soil-fertility 

The Persistent Fertility of Dry-farms . 
Reasons for Dry-farming Fertility 
Methods of Conserving Soil-fertility 



280-300 
. 283 

. 286 
. 292 



CHAPTER XV 



Implements for Dry-farming ..... 


301-327 


Clearing and Breaking . . . . 


. 302 


Plowing 


. 305 


Making and Maintaining a Soil Mulch . 


. 310 


Subsurface Packing 


. 316 


Sowing ......... 


. 317 


Harvesting 


. 320 


Steam and Other Motive Power .... 


. 321 



XVI 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XVI 

Irrigation and Dry-farming . 

The Scarcity of Water . 

Available Surface Water 

Available Subterranean Water 

Pumping Water 

Use of Small Quantities of Water in Irrigation 



PAGE 

328-350 

331 
333 
338 
341 
344 



CHAPTER XVII 

The History of Dry-farming 351-381 

Origin of Modern Dry-farming in the United States . . 354 

Utah 

California 

The Columbia Basin 

Great Plains Area 

Uniformity of Methods 

H. W. Campbell 361 

The Experiment Stations 365 

The United States Department of Agriculture . . . 372 

The Dry-farming Congress 374 

JethroTuU 378 



CHAPTER XVIII 

The Present Status of Dry-farming , . . . 382-398 

California 382 

The Columbia River Basin 384 

The Great Basin 386 

Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins .... 388 

The Mountain States 389 

The Great Plains Area ......... 389 

Canada 391 

Mexico . 391 

Brazil 392 

Australia „ 393 



CONTENTS 



XVll 



Africa 393 

Russia 394 

Turkey .396 

Palestine 397 

China 397 



CHAPTER XIX 



The Year of Drouth 



Record of the Barnes Farm, 1887-1906 . 
Record of the Indian Head Farm, 1891-1909 
Record of the Motherwell Farm, 1891-1909 . 
The Utah Drouth of 1910 . . . . 



399-412 

. 403 

. 406 

. 410 

. 411 



CHAPTER XX 
Dry-farming in a Nutshell 



413-416 



APPENDIX A 
A Partial Bibliography of Publications on Dry-farming 417 



APPENDIX B 
Text of the Smoot-Mondell Bill 425 

INDEX 429 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



JethroTuU Frontispiece 



NO. 
1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 

15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 



Utah sagebrush land .... 

Native sod of Rocky Mountain foothills 

New Mexico dry-farm lands . 

Land above the canal .... 

Weighing pots in transpiration experiments 

Plant house for transpiration experiments 

The quantity of water required for the product 

matter ..... • • 
The rolling hills of the Palouse wheat district 
Rainfall chart for the United States 
Sagebrush under ten inches rainfall 
Sagebrush under fifteen inches rainfall . 
Rainfall chart for the world .... 
Physical features of the dry-farm territory of 

States 

Chart showing the distribution of rainfall in the 

United States 

Sagebrush land covered with snow 
Sunshine in Canada and the United States 

Soil structure 

Difference between humid and arid soils 
Deep soil, suitable for dry-farming 
Gravelly soil, not adapted for dry-farming 
Soil augers . 
Wheat roots . 



ion of dry 



the United 



>lfalfa roots . 
Sugar-beet roots 
Corn roots 

Root systems under humid and arid conditions 

xix 



w 



2 
3 
6 
9 
13 
15 

18 
19 
23 
25 
27 
30,31 



estern 



37 

41 
43 
47 

56 
63 
67 
72 
79 
82 
83 
87 
89 
91 



XX 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



NO. 

27. Alway's experiment^, showing relation between crop and soil 

moisture . 

28. "Water in small tubes 

29. How rainwater is changed to capillary soil-water 

30. Soil-water in fall and in spring 

31. Kubanka wheat field in Montana . 

32. Annual rainfall and evaporation compared 

33. Checked land 

34. Alfalfa in cultivated rows 

35. The effect of cultivation 

36. Flax in Montana 

37. Plowing in the N'orthwest 

38. Root-hairs and soil particles . 

39. Penetration of root-hairs through soil . 

40. "Wheat roots with soil particles 

41. Stomata 

42. Photograph of stomata .... 

43. Ideal tilth of soil 

44. Interior of olive orchard in Sfax, Tunis 

45. "Winter wheat in "Wyoming . 

46. Dry-farm potatoes, Montana 

47. Clean summer fallow .... 

48. Barley on land continuously cropped . 

49. Barley on summer fallowed land . 

50. Combined harvester and thresher, Montana 

51. Header at work, "Washington 

52. Cultivating oats with weeder, Wyoming 

53. Header at work 

54. Oat field, Utah 

55. "Winter wheat and alfalfa, "Wyoming . 

56. Turkey wheat field, Montana 

57. Barley field, Nevada 

58. Corn field. New Mexico 

59. Oat field, Montana 

60. Ears of corn, Montana . 

61. Heads of macaroni wheat 

62. Heads of hard winter wheats 

63. Milo maize field, Montana 



104 
110 
115 
117 
131 
142 
151 
154 
156 
161 
167 
169 
171 
173 
173 
181 
184 
189 
190 
196 
199 
201 
211 
213 
219 
229 
231 
235 
239 
242 
246 
250 
255 
259 
265 
266 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



XXI 



share 



NO. 

64. Brome grass field, Montana 

65. Fall rye field, Montana 

66. Oat field. New Mexico . 

67. Dry-farm orchard, Utah 

68. Barley field, Montana . 

69. Barley field, Utah 

70. Barley field, New Mexico 

71. Corn field, Montana . 

72. Steam plowing 

73. Parts of modern plow . 

74. Sulky plow . 

75. Plow bottoms 

76. Plow with interchangeable moldboard and 

77. Disk plow . 

78. Subsoil plow 

79. Spike-tooth harrow 

80. Spring-tooth harrow . 

81. Disk harrow 

82. Riding cultivator . 

83. Subsurface packer 

84. Disk drill and seeder . 

85. Disk drill with press wheels 

86. Sulky lister for corn . 

87. Utah dry-farm weeder 

88. Cultivating durum wheat, Wyoming . 

89. Preparing land for dry-farming, Arizona 

90. Dry-farm with flood reservoir 

91. Dry-farm homestead, Montana . 

92. Dry-farm homestead, Arizona 

93. Some dry-farm products, Montana 

94. Vegetable garden, Montana 

95. Windmill and storage tank, Arizona . 

96. Last of the breast plows 

97. Cache Valley, Utah .... 

98. Automobiles of dry-farmers at demonstration 

99. Excursionists to dry-farm demonstration, Utah 

100. Threshing on Utah experimental dry-farm . 

101. The land to be reclaimed in Montana . 



PAGE 

270 

274 

278 

281 

285 

289 

294 

299 

303 

305 

306 

307 

307 

308 

309 

310 

311 

312 

314 

316 

.318 

319 

319 

322 

324 

326 

329 

331 

335 

339 

343 

349 

352 

356 

361 

367 

371 

375 



xxu 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



NO. 

102. Threshing near Moscow, Idaho . 

103. Dry-farm scene in Nevada . 

104. Thirty thousand acres of dry-farms in Utah 

105. Wheat-shipping point in Saskatchewan 

106. Olive orchards near Sfax, Tunis . 

107. Winter wheat, Wyoming . 

108. Field of dry-farm wheat, Utah . 

109. Carting macaroni wheat to wharves 

110. View of Palouse wheat district . 

111. Homeward bound 



PAGE 

384 
387 
390 
395 
396 
401 
403 
407 
409 
415 



Many of the above illustrations were secured through the courtesy 
of F. H. King, V. T. Cooke, William M. Jardine, A. H. Atkinson, 
R. H. Forbes, the Carnegie Institution, the publishers of Bailey's 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture^ the United States Department 
of Agriculture, and the Agricultural Experiment Stations of Montana, 
Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nebraska. 



DRY-FARMING 



DRY-FARMII^G 

CHAPTER I 

Introduction" 
dry-farming defined 

Dry-farming, as at present understood, is the 
profitable production of useful crops, without irriga- 
tion, on lands that receive annually a rainfall of 
20 inches or less. In districts of torrential rains, 
high winds, unfavorable distribution of the rain- 
fall, or other water-dissipating factors, the term 
'^ dry-farming " is also properly applied to farming 
without irrigation under an annual precipitation of 
25 or even 30 inches. There is no sharp de- 
markation between dry- and humid-farming. 

When the annual precipitation is under 20 
inches, the methods of dry-farming are usually 
indispensable. When it is over 30 inches, the 
methods of humid-farming are employed; in places 
where the annual precipitation is between 20 and 
30 inches, the methods to be used depend chiefly 
on local conditions affecting the conservation of 
soil moisture. Dry-farming, however, always im- 



DRY-FARMING 



plies farming under a comparatively small annual 
rainfall. 

The term " dry-farming " is, of course, a misnomer. 
In reality it is farming under drier conditions than 




Fig. 1. Typical sagebrush land in dry-farm districts of the Great Basin. 
Utah, 1902. Note the dry-farms in the distance. 




3 
o 






■J 



4 DRY-FARMING 

those prevailing in the countries in which scientific 
agriculture originated. Many suggestions for a 
better name have been made. ^^ Scientific agricul- 
ture" has been proposed, but all agriculture should 
be scientific, and agriculture without irrigation in 
an arid country has no right to lay sole claim to so 
general a title. '^Dry-land agriculture/' which has 
also been suggested, is no improvement over ^'dry- 
farming/ 'as it is longer and also carries with it the 
idea of dryness. Instead of the name '' dry-farming " 
it would, perhaps, be better to use the names, '' arid- 
farming'' "semiarid-farming," '^ humid-farming, "and 
''irrigation-farming," according to the climatic con- 
ditions prevailing in various parts of the world. How- 
ever, at the present time the name '' dry-farming " 
is in such general use that it would seem unwise to 
suggest any change. It should be used with the 
distinct understanding that as far as the word '' dry" 
is concerned it is a misnomer. When the two words 
are hyphenated, however, a compound technical 
term — ''dry-farming" — is secured which has a 
meaning of its own, such as we have just defined it 
to be; and "dry-farming," therefore, becomes an 
addition to the lexicon. 

Dry- versus humid-farming 

Dry-farming, as a distinct branch of agriculture, 
has for its purpose the reclamation, for the use of 
man, of the vast unirrigable "desert" or "semi- 



PUKPOSE OF DRY-FARMING 5 

desert" areas of the world, which until recently were 
considered hopelessly barren. The great underlying 
principles of agriculture are the same the world over, 
yet the emphasis to be placed on the different agri- 
cultural theories and practices must be shifted in 
accordance with regional conditions. The agricul- 
tural problem of first importance in humid regions 
is the maintenance of soil fertility ; and since modern 
agriculture was developed almost wholly under 
humid conditions, the system of scientific agricul- 
ture has for its central idea the maintenance of soil 
fertility. In arid regions, on the other hand, the 
conservation of the natural water precipitation for 
crop production is the important problem; and a 
new system of agriculture must therefore be con- 
structed, on the basis of the old principles, but with 
the conservation of the natural precipitation as the 
central idea. The system of dry-farming must 
marshal and organize all the established facts of 
science for the better utilization, in plant growth, of 
a limited rainfall. The excellent teachings of humid 
agriculture respecting the maintenance of soil fer- 
tility will be of high value in the development of 
dry-farming, and the firm establishment of right 
methods of conserving and using the natural pre- 
cipitation will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect 
upon the practice of humid agriculture. Figures 1-4 
show some of the characteristic features of dry- 
farming regions. 



6 



DKY-FARMING 



The problems of dry-farming 

The dry-farmer, at the outset, should know with 
comparative accuracy the annual rainfall over the 
area that he intends to cultivate. He must also 




Fig. 3. Dry-farm cane in New Mexico. Note native vegetation in 

foreground. 

have a good acquaintance with the nature of the 
soil, not only as regards its plant-food content, but 



PROBLEMS OF DRY-FARMING 7 

as to its power to receive and retain the water from 
rain and snow. In fact, a knowledge of the soil is 
indispensable in successful dry-farming. Only by 
such knowledge of the rainfall and the soil is he able 
to adapt the principles outlined in this volume to 
his special needs. 

Since, under dry-farm conditions, w^ater is the 
limiting factor of production, the primary problem 
of dry-farming is the most effective storage in the 
soil of the natural precipitation. Only the water, 
safely stored in the soil within reach of the roots, can 
be used in crop production. Of nearly equal impor- 
tance is the problem of keeping the water in the soil 
until it is needed by plants. During the growing 
season, water may be lost from the soil by downward 
drainage or by evaporation from the surface. It 
becomes necessary, therefore, to determine under 
what conditions the natural precipitation stored in 
the soil moves downward and by what means surface 
evaporation may be prevented or regulated. The 
soil-water, of real use to plants, is that taken up by 
the roots and finally evaporated from the leaves. 
A large part of the water stored in the soil is thus 
used. The methods whereby this direct draft of 
plants on the soil-moisture may be regulated are, 
naturally, of the utmost importance to the dry- 
farmer, and they constitute another vital problem 
of the science of dry-farming. 

The relation of crops to the prevailing conditions 



8 DRY-FARMING 

of arid lands offers another group of important 
dry-farm problems. Some plants use much less 
water than others. Some attain maturity quickly, 
and in that way become desirable for dry-farming. 
Still other crops, grown under humid conditions, 
may easily be adapted to dry-farming conditions, 
if the correct methods are employed, and in a few 
seasons may be made valuable dry-farm crops. 
The individual characteristics of each crop should be 
known as they relate themselves to a low rainfall and 
arid soils. 

After a crop has been chosen, skill and knowledge 
are needed in the proper seeding, tillage, and har- 
vesting of the crop. Failures frequently result 
from the want of adapting the crop treatment to 
arid conditions. 

After the crop has been gathered and stored, its 
proper use is another problem for the dry-farmer. 
The composition of dry-farm crops is different from 
that of crops grown with an abundance of water. 
Usually, dry-farm crops are much more nutritious 
and therefore should command a higher price in the 
markets, or should be fed to stock in corresponding 
proportions and combinations. 

The fundamental problems of dry-farming are, 
then, the storage in the soil of a small annual rain- 
fall; the retention in the soil of the moisture until 
it is needed by plants; the prevention of the di- 
rect evaporation of soil-moisture during the growing 



10 DRY-FARMING 

season ; the regulation of the amount of water drawn 
from the soil by plants ; the choice of crops suitable 
for growth under arid conditions; the application 
of suitable crop treatments, and the disposal of dry- 
farm products, based upon the superior composition 
of plants grown with small amounts of water. 
Around these fundamental problems cluster a host 
of minor, though also important, problems. When 
the methods of dry-farming are understood and 
practiced, the practice is always successful; but 
it requires more intelligence, more implicit obedience 
to nature's laws, and greater vigilance, than farming 
in countries of abundant rainfall. 

The chapters that follow will deal almost wholly 
with the problems above outlined as they present 
themselves in the construction of a rational system 
of farming without irrigation in countries of limited 
rainfall. 



CHAPTER II 

THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF DRY-FARMING 

The confidence with which scientific investigators, 
famihar with the arid regions, have attacked the 
problems of dry-farming rests largely on the known 
relationship of the water requirements of plants to 
the natural precipitation of rain and snow. It is 
a most elementary fact of plant physiology that no 
plant can live and grow unless it has at its disposal 
a sufficient amount of water. 

The water used by plants is almost entirely taken 
from the soil by the minute root-hairs radiating 
from the roots. The water thus taken into the 
plants is passed upward through the stem to the 
leaves, where it is finally evaporated. There is, 
therefore, a more or less constant stream of w^ater 
passing through the plant from the roots to the 
leaves. 

By various methods it is possible to measure the 
water thus taken from the soil. While this process 
of taking water from the soil is going on within the 
plant, a certain amount of soil-moisture is also lost 
by direct evaporation from the soil surface. In 

11 



12 DRY-FARMING 

dry-farm sections, soil-moisture is lost only by these 
two methods; for wherever the rainfall is sufficient 
to cause drainage from deep soils, humid conditions 
prevail. 

Water for one pound dry matter 

Many experiments have been conducted to deter- 
mine the amount of water used in the production of 
one pound of dry plant substance. Generally, the 
method of the experiments has been to grow plants 
in large pots containing weighed quantities of soil. 
As needed, wTighed amounts of water were added 
to the pots. To determine the loss of water, the 
pots were weighed at regular intervals of three days 
to one week. At harvest time, the weight of dry 
matter was carefully determined for each pot. Since 
the water lost by the pots was also known, the pounds 
of water used for the production of every pound of 
dry matter were readily calculated (Figs. 5, 6). 

The first reliable experiments of the kind were 
undertaken under humid conditions in Germany 
and other European countries. From the mass of 
results," some have been selected and presented in 
the following table. The work was done by the 
famous German investigators, Wollny, Hellriegel, 
and Sorauer, in the early eighties of the last century. 
In every case, the numbers in the table represent 
the number of pounds of water used for the produc- 
tion of one pound of ripened dry substance : — 



14 



DRY-FARMING 



Pounds of Water for One Pound of Dry Matter 



Wheat . 
Oats . . 
Barley 
Rye . . 
Corn . . 
Buckwheat 
Peas . . 
Horsebeans 
Red clover 
Sunflowers 
Millet 



WOLLNY 



665 

774 
233 
646 
416 



490 
447 



Hellriegel 



338 
376 
310 
353 

363 
273 

282 
310 



SORAUER 



459 
569 
431 
236 



It is clear from the above results, obtained in Ger- 
many, that the amount of water required to produce 
a pound of dry matter is not the same for all plants, 
nor is it the same under all conditions for the same 
plant. In fact, as will be shown in a later chapter, 
the water requirements of any crop depend upon 
numerous factors, more or less controllable. The 
range of the above German results is from 233 to 
774 pounds, with an average of about 419 pounds 
of water for each pound of dry matter produced. 

During the late eighties and early nineties. King 
conducted experiments similar to the earlier German 
experiments, to determine the water requirements of 
crops under Wisconsin conditions. A summary of 



RELATION OF WATER TO DRY MATTER 15 

the results of these extensive and carefully conducted 
experiments is as follows : — 

Oats 385 

Barley 464 

Corn 271 

Peas 477 

Clover 576 

Potatoes 385 

The figures in the above table, averaging about 
446 pounds, indicate that very nearly the same 




Fig. 6. Plant house at Wiscunsin in which ¥. H. Kiiifi did much of his 
famous work on the water requirements of plants. 

quantity of water is required for the production of 
crops in Wisconsin as in Germany„ The Wisconsin 



16 DRY-FARMING 

results tend to be somewhat higher than those ob- 
tained in Europe^ but the difference is small. 

It is a settled principle of science, as will be more 
fully discussed later, that the amount of water 
evaporated from the soil and transpired by plant 
leaves increases materially with an increase in the 
average temperature during the growing season, and 
is much higher under a clear sky and in districts 
where the atmosphere is dry. Wherever dry-farm- 
ing is likely to be practiced, a moderately high tem- 
perature, a cloudless sky, and a dry atmosphere are 
the prevailing conditions. It appeared probable, 
therefore, that in arid countries the amount of water 
required for the production of one pound of dry mat- 
ter would be higher than in the humid regions of 
Germany and Wisconsin. To secure information 
on this subject, Widtsoe and Merrill undertook, in 
1900, a series of experiments in Utah, which were 
conducted upon the plan of the earlier experimenters. 
An average statement of the results of six years' 
experimentation is given in the subjoined table, 
showing the number of pounds of water required for 
one pound of dry matter on fertile soils : — 

Wheat 1048 

Com 589 

Peas 1118 

Sugar beets 630 

These Utah findings support strongly the doctrine 
that the amount of water required for the produc- 



RELATION OF WATER TO DRY MATTER 17 

tion of each pound of dry matter is very much larger 
under arid conditions, as in Utah, than under humid 
conditions, as in Germany or Wisconsin. It must be 
observed, however, that in all of these experiments 
the plants were supplied with water in a somewhat 
wasteful manner ; that is, they were given an abun- 
dance of water, and used the largest quantity pos- 
sible under the prevailing 'conditions. No attempt 
of any kind was made to economize water. The 
results, therefore, represent maximum results and 
can be safely used as such. Moreover, the methods 
of dry-farming, involving the storage of water in 
deep soils and systematic cultivation, were not em- 
ployed. The experiments, both in Europe and 
America, rather represent irrigated conditions. There 
are good reasons for believing that in Germany, 
Wisconsin, and Utah the amounts above given can 
be materially reduced by the employment of proper 
cultural methods. 

In view of these findings concerning the water 
requirements of crops, it cannot be far from the truth 
to say that, under average cultural conditions, ap- 
proximately 750 pounds of water are required in an 
arid district for the production of one pound of dry 
matter (Fig. 7). Where the aridity is intense, this 
figure may be somewhat low, and in localities of sub- 
humid conditions, it will undoubtedly be too high. 
As a maximum average, however, for districts inter- 
ested in dry-farming, it can be used with safety. 



18 



DRY-FARMING 



Crop-producing power of rainfall 

If this conclusion, that not more than 750 pounds 
of water are required under ordinary dry-farm 

conditions for the 
production of one 
pound of dry matter, 
be accepted, certain 
interesting calcula- 
tions can be made 
respecting the pos- 
sibilities of dry-farm- 
ing. For example, 
the production of one 
bushel of wheat will 
require 60 times 750, 
or 45,000 pounds of 
water. The wheat 
kernels, however, 
cannot be produced 
without a certain 
amount of straw, 
which under con- 
ditions of dry-farm- 
^ _ „, + • +1, 1 u ^.1 ins; seldom forms 

iiG. 7. The water in the large bottle ^ 

would be required to produce the quitC OUC half of the 
grain in the small bottle. ' • i x r xi, i, i 

weight or the whole 
plant. Let us say, however, that the weights of 
straw and kernels are equal. Then, to produce one 




THE WATER NECESSARY FOR A CROP 



19 



bushel of wheat, v/ith the corresponding quantity of 
straw, would require 2 times 45,000, or 90,000 
pounds of water. This is equal to 45 tons of water 
for each bushel of wheat. While this is a large fio;- 
ure, yet, in many localities, it is undoubtedly well 
within the truth. In comparison with the amounts 



^^i^- 





Fig. 8. The famous Palouse wheat section is a succession of low rolling 

hills. Idaho. 

of water that fall upon the land as rain, it does not 
seem extraordinarily large. 

One inch of water over one acre of land weighs 
approximately 226,875 pounds, or over 113 tons. 
If this quantity of water could be stored in the soil 
and used wholly for plant production, it would pro- 
duce, at the rate of 45 tons of water for each bushel, 
about 2-J- bushels of wheat. With 10 inches of rain- 



20 DRY-FARMING 

fall, which up to the present seems to be the lower 
limit of successful dry-farming, there is a maximum 
possibility of producing 25 bushels of wheat annually. 
In the subjoined table, constructed on the basis 
of the discussion of this chapter, the wheat-produc- 
ing powers of various degrees of annual precipita- 
tion are shown : — 

One acre inch of water will produce 2J bushels of wheat. 
Ten acre inches of water will produce 25 bushels of wheat. 
Fifteen acre inches of water will produce 37^ bushels of 

wheat. 
Twenty acre inches of water will produce 50 bushels of 

wheat. 

It must be distinctly remembered, however, that 
under no known system of tillage can all the water 
that falls upon a soil be brought into the soil and 
stored there for plant use. Neither is it possible to 
treat a soil so that all the stored soil-moisture may 
be used for plant production. Some moisture, of 
necessity, will evaporate directly from the soil, and 
some may be lost in many other ways. Yet, even 
under a rainfall of 12 inches, if only one half of the 
water can be conserved, which experiments have 
shown to be very feasible, there is a possibility of 
producing 30 bushels of wheat per acre every other 
year, which insures an excellent interest on the 
money and labor invested in the production of the 
crop. 



THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF DRY-FARMING 21 

It is on the grounds outlined in this chapter that 
students of the subject beheve that ultimately large 
areas of the ''desert'' may be reclaimed by means 
of dry-farming. The real question before the dry- 
farmer is not, ''Is the rainfall sufficient?" but rather, 
"Is it possible so to conserve and use the rainfall as 
to make it available for the production of profitable 
crops?" 



CHAPTER III 

DRY-FARM AREAS. — RAINFALL 

The annual precipitation of rain and snow deter- 
mines primarily the location of dry-farm areas. 
As the rainfall varies, the methods of dry-farming 
must be varied accordingly. Rainfall, alone, does 
not, however, furnish a complete index of the crop- 
producing possibilities of a country. 

The distribution of the rainfall, the amount of 
snow, the water-holding power of the soil, and the 
various moisture-dissipating causes, such as winds, 
high temperature, abundant sunshine, and low humid- 
ity, frequently combine to offset the benefits of a large 
annual precipitation. Nevertheless, no one climatic 
feature represents, on the average, so correctly 
dry-farming possibilities as does the annual rainfall. 
Experience has already demonstrated that wherever 
the annual precipitation is above 15 inches, there is 
no need of crop failures, if the soils are suitable and 
the methods of dry-farming are correctly employed. 
With an annual precipitation of 10 to 15 inches, 
there need be very few failures, if proper cultural 
precautions are taken. With our present methods, 
the areas that receive less than 10 inches of atmos- 

22 



24 DRY-FARMING 

pheric precipitation per year are not safe for dry- 
farm purposes. What the future will show in the 
reclamation of these deserts, without irrigation, is 
yet conjectural. 

Arid, semiarid, and sub-humid 

Before proceeding to an examination of the areas 
in the United States subject to the methods of dry- 
farming, it may be well to define somewhat more 
clearly the terms ordinarily used in the description 
of the great territory involved in the discussion. 

The states lying west of the 100th meridian are 
loosely spoken of as arid, semiarid, or sub-humid 
states. For commercial purposes no state wants to 
be classed as arid and to suffer under the handicap 
of advertised aridity. The annual rainfall of these 
states ranges from about 3 to over 30 inches. 

In order to arrive at greater definiteness, it may 
be well to assign definite rainfall values to the ordi- 
narily used descriptive terms of the region in question. 
It is proposed, therefore, that districts receiving 
less than 10 inches of atmospheric precipitation 
annually, be designated arid; those receiving between 
10 and 20 inches, semiarid; those receiving between 
20 and 30 inches, suh-humid, and those receiving over 
30 inches, humid. It is admitted that even such a 
classification is arbitrary, since aridity does not alone 
depend upon the rainfall, and even under such a 



DEFINITIONS 



25 



classification there is an unavoidable overlapping. 
However, no one factor so fully represents varying 
degrees of aridity as the annual precipitation, and 
there is a great need for concise definitions of the 
terms used in describing the jmrts of the country 




Fig. 10. Sagebrush growing in infertile sandy soil under an annual rain- 
fall of less than 10 inches. Utah. 

that come under dry-farming discussions. In this vol- 
ume, the terms '^arid," ^^semiarid," ^'sub-humid'' 
and ^^ humid ^^ are used as above defined. 



Precipitation over the dry -farm territory 

The map on page 23, based upon the work of 
Professor A. J. Henry of the United States Weather 
Bureau, shows graphically the normal annual pre- 
cipitation in the United States of America. Exami- 



26 



DRY-FARMING 



nation of this map proves that nearly one half of the 
whole area of the United States receives 20 inches or 
less rainfall annually; and that when the strip re- 
ceiving between 20 and 30 inches is added, the whole 
area directly subject to reclamation by irrigation or 
dry-farming is considerably more than one half 
(63 per cent) of the whole area of the United States. 
Eighteen states are included in this area of low 
rainfall. The areas of these, as given by the Census 
of 1900, grouped according to the annual precipita- 
tion received, are shown below : — 



Arid to Semi- 


Total Area Land 


arid Group 


Surface (Sq. Miles) 


Arizona 


.... 112,920 




California . 


. . „ . 156,172 




Colorado . 


.... 103,645 




Idaho . . 


.... 84,290 




Nevada . . 


.... 109,740 




Utah . . 


.... 82,190 




Wyoming , 


.... 97,575 




Total . 


746,532 


Semiarid to Sub- 


humid Group 




Montana . 


.... 145,310 




Nebraska . 


.... 76,340 




New Mexico 


.... 112,460 




North Dakota 


.... 70,195 




Oregon . . 


.... 94,560 




South Dakota 


.... 76,850 




Washington 


66,880 




Total . 


653,095 



AREAS OF DRY-FARMING 27 

Sub-humid to Humid Group 

Kansas 81,700 

Minnesota 79,205 

Oklahoma 38,830 

Texas 262,290 

Total 462,025 

Total for all groups . 1,861,652 

The territory directly interested in the develop- 
ment of the methods of dry-farming forms 63 per 
cent of the whole of the continental United States, 




Fig. 11. Sagebrush on fertile clay loam under an annual rainfall of 15 
inches. Utah. Wherever there is a thrifty growth of sagebrush, the 
success of dry-farming is certain. 

not including Alaska, and covers an area of 1,861,652 
square miles, or 1,191,457,280 acres. If any excuse 



28 DRY-FARMING 

were needed for the lively interest taken in the sub- 
ject of dry-farming, it is amply furnished by these 
figures showing the vast extent of the country 
interested in the reclamation of land by the methods 
of dry-farming. As will be shown below, nearly 
every other large country possesses similar immense 
areas under limited rainfall. 

Of the one billion, one hundred and ninety-one 
million, four hundred and fifty-seven thousand, two 
hundred and eighty acres (1,191,457,280) repre- 
senting the dry-farm territory of the United States, 
about 22 per cent, or a little more than one fifth, is 
sub-humid and receives between 20 and 30 inches of 
rainfall, annually ; 61 per cent, or a little more than 
three fifths, is semiarid and receives between 10 and 
20 inches, annually, and about 17 per cent, or a little 
less than one fifth, is arid and receives less than 
10 inches of rainfall, annually. 

These calculations are based upon the published 
average rainfall maps of the United States Weather 
Bureau. In the far West, and especially over the 
so-called ^^ desert" regions, with their sparse popula- 
tion, meteorological stations are not numerous, nor 
is it easy to secure accurate data from them. It is 
strongly probable that as more stations are estab- 
lished, it will be found that the area receiving less 
than 10 inches of rainfall annually is considerably 
smaller than above estimated. In fact, the United 
States Reclamation Service states that there are only 




Fig. 12. The annual rainfall over the 




d. Dry-farming is a world problem. 



SEMIARID AREAS 31 

70,000,000 acres of desert-like land; that is, land 
which does not naturally support plants suitable 
for forage. This area is about one third of the lands 
which, so far as known, at present receive less than 
10 inches of rainfall, or only about 6 per cent of the 
total dry-farming territory. 

In any case, the semiarid area is at present most 
vitally interested in dry-farming. The sub-humid 
area need seldom suffer from drouth, if ordinary 
well-known methods are employed; the arid area, 
receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall, in all proba- 
bility, can be reclaimed without irrigation only by 
the development of more suitable methods than are 
known to-day. The semiarid area, which is the 
special consideration of present-day dry-farming, 
represents an area of over 725,000,000 acres of land. 
Moreover, it must be remarked that the full cer- 
tainty of crops in the sub-humid regions will come 
only with the adoption of dry-farming methods; 
and that results already obtained on the edge of 
the ^^ deserts" lead to the belief that a large portion 
of the area receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall, 
annually, will ultimately be reclaimed without irri- 
gation. 

Naturally, not the whole of the vast area just 
discussed could be brought under cultivation, even 
under the most favorable conditions of rainfall. A 
veiy large portion of the territory in question is 
mountainous and often of so rugged a nature that to 



32 DRY-FARMING 

farm it would be an impossibility. It must not be 
forgotten, however, that some of the best dry-farm 
lands of the West are found in the small mountain 
valleys, which usually are pockets of most fertile 
soil, under a good supply of rainfall. The foothills 
of the mountains are almost invariably excellent 
dry-farm lands. Newell estimates that 195,000,000 
acres of land in the arid to sub-humid sections are 
covered with a more or less dense growth of timber. 
This timbered area roughly represents the mountain- 
ous and therefore the nonarable portions of land. 
The same authority estimates that the desert-like 
lands cover an area of 70,000,000 acres. Making 
the most liberal estimates for mountainous and 
desert-like lands, at least one half of the whole 
area, or about 600,000,000 acres, is arable land, 
which by proper methods may be reclaimed for 
agricultural purposes. Irrigation when fully de- 
veloped may reclaim not to exceed 5 per cent of 
this area. From any point of view, therefore, the 
possibilities involved in dry-farming in the United 
States are immense. 

Dry-farm area of the world 

Dry-farming is a world problem. Aridity is a 
condition met and to be overcome upon every con- 
tinent. McColl estimates that in Australia, which is 
somewhat larger than the continental United States 



WORLD AREAS 



33 



of America, only one third of the whole surface 
receives above 20 inches of rainfall annually; one 
third receives from 10 to 20 inches, and one third 
receives less than 10 inches. That is, about 
1,267,000,000 acres in Australia are subject to 
reclamation by dry-farming methods. This condi- 
tion is not far from that which prevails in the United 
States, and is representative of every continent of the 
world. The map on pages 30-31 shows graphically 
the approximate rainfall over the various parts of the 
earth's land surface. The following table gives the 
proportions of the earth's land surface under various 
degrees of annual precipitations : — 



Annual Precipitation 



Proportion of Earth's Land 
Surface 



Under 10 inches 
From 10 to 20 inches 
From 20 to 40 inches 
From 40 to 60 inches 
From 60 to 80 inches 
From 80 to 120 inches 
From 120 to 160 inches 
Above 160 inches 



25.0 per cent 

30.0 per cent 

20.0 per cent 

11.0 per cent 

9.0 per cent 

4.0 per cent 

0.5 per cent 

0.5 per cent 

roi)^ 



Fifty-five per cent, or more than one half of the 
total land surface of the earth, receives an annual 
precipitation of less than 20 inches, and must be 
reclaimed, if at all, by dry-farming. At least 10 



34 DRY-FARMING 

per cent more receives from 20 to 30 inches under 
conditions that make dry-farming methods necessary. 
A total of about 65 per cent of the earth's land sur- 
face is, therefore, directly interested in dry-farming. 
With the future. perfected development of irrigation 
systems and practices, not more than 10 per cent 
will be reclaimed by irrigation. Dry-farming is 
truly a problem to challenge the attention of the 
race. 



\^. 



CHAPTER IV 

DRY-FARM AREAS. — GENERAL CLIMATIC FEATURES 

The dry-farm territory of the United States 
stretches from the Pacific seaboard to the 96th parallel 
of longitude, and from the Canadian to the Mexican 
boundary, making a total area of nearly 1,800,000 
square miles. This immense territory is far from 
being a vast level plain. On the extreme east is the 
Great Plains region of the Mississippi Valley which 
is a comparatively uniform country of rolling hills, 
but no mountains. At a point about one third of 
the whole distance westward the whole land is lifted 
skyward by the Rocky Mountains, which cross the 
country from south to northwest. Here are innu- 
merable peaks, canons, high table-lands, roaring 
torrents, and quiet mountain valleys. West of the 
Rockies is the great depression known as the Great 
Basin, which has no outlet to the ocean. It is 
essentially a gigantic level lake floor traversed in 
many directions by mountain ranges that are off- 
shoots from the backbone of the Rockies. South 
of the Great Basin are the high plateaus, into which 
many great chasms are cut, the best known and 
largest of which is the great Caiion of the Colorado. 

35 



36 DRY-FARMING 

North and east of the Great Basin is the Columbia 
River Basin characterized by basaltic rolling plains 
and broken mountain country. To the west, the 
floor of the Great Basin is lifted up into the region 
of eternal snow by the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
which north of Nevada are known as the Cascades. 
On the west, the Sierra Nevadas slope gently, through 
intervening valleys and minor mountain ranges, 
into the Pacific Ocean. It would be difficult to 
imagine a more diversified topography than is pos- 
sessed by the dry-farm territory of the United States. 

Uniform climatic conditions are not to be expected 
over such a broken country. The chief determinmg 
factors of climate — latitude, relative distribution 
of land and water, elevation, prevailing winds — 
swing between such large extremes that of necessity 
the climatic conditions of different sections are widely 
divergent. Dry-farming is so intimately related 
to climate that the typical climatic variations must 
be pointed out. 

The total annual i)recii)itation is directly influ- 
enced by the land topography, especially by the 
great mountain ranges. On the east of the Rocky 
Mountains is the sub-humid district, which receives 
from 20 to 30 inches of rainfall annually; over the 
Rockies themselves, semiarid conditions prevail; 
in the Great Basin, hemmed in by the Rockies on the 
east and the Sierra Nevadas on the west, more arid 
conditions predominate ; to the west, over the Sierras 




Fig. 13. Physical features of the dry-farm territory of the United 
States. Note the great variation of conditions. (After Tarr.) 



38 DRY-FARMING 

and down to the seacoast, semiarid to sub-humid 
conditions are again found. 

Seasonal distribution of rainfall 

It is doubtless true that the total annual precipi- 
tation is the chief factor in determining the success 
of dry-farming. However, the distribution of the 
rainfall throughout the year is also of great impor- 
tance, and should be known by the farmer. A small 
rainfall, coming at the most desirable season, will 
have greater crop-producing power than a very 
much larger rainfall poorly distributed. Moreover, 
the methods of tillage to be employed where most of 
the precipitation comes in winter must be consider- 
ably different from those used where the bulk of 
the precipitation comes in the summer. The suc- 
cessful dry-farmer must know the average annual 
precipitation, and also the average seasonal dis- 
tribution of the rainfall, over the land which he 
intends to dry-farm before he can safely choose his 
cultural methods. 

With reference to the monthly distribution of the 
precipitation over the dry-farm territory of the 
United States, Henry of the United States Weather 
Bureau recognizes five distinct types; namely: 
(1) Pacific, (2) Sub-Pacific, (3) Arizona, (4) the 
Northern Rocky Mountain and Eastern Foothills, 
and (5) the Plains Type : — 



MONTHLY RAINFALLS 39 

^'The Pacific Type. — This type is found in all 
of the territory west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada 
ranges, and also obtains in a fringe of country to the 
eastward of the mountain summits. The distinguish- 
ing characteristic of the Pacific type is a wet season, 
extending from October to March, and a practically 
rainless summer, except in northern California and 
parts of Oregon and Washington. About half of 
the yearly precipitation comes in the months of 
December, January, and February, the remaining 
half being distributed throughout the seven months 
— September, October, November, March, April, 
May, and June.'^ 

^^Sub-Pacific Type, — The term 'Sub-Pacific' has 
been given to that type of rainfall which obtains over 
eastern Washington, Nevada, and Utah. The in- 
fluences that control the precipitation of this 
region are much similar to those that prevail west 
of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. There 
is not, however, as in the eastern type, a steady 
diminution in the precipitation with the approach 
of spring, but rather a culmination in the precipi- 
tation.'^ 

^^ Arizona Type. — The Arizona Type, so called 
because it is more fully developed in that territory 
than elsewhere, prevails over Arizona, New Mexico, 
and a small portion of eastern Utah and Nevada. 
This type differs from all others in the fact that 
about 35 per cent of the rain falls in July and 



^ 



40 DRY-FARMING 

August. May and June are generally the months 
of least rainfall.'' 

'^The Northern Rocky Mountain and Eastern Foot- 
hills Type. — This type is closely allied to that of 
the plains to the eastward, and the bulk of the rain 
falls in the foothills of the region in April and May; 
in Montana, in May and June." 

^'The Plains Type. — This type embraces the 
greater part of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, 
Oklahoma, the Panhandle of Texas, and all the great 
corn and wheat states of the interior valleys. This 
region is characterized by a scant winter precipita- 
tion over the northern states and moderately heavy 
rains during the growing season. The bulk of the 
rains comes in May, June, and July." 

This classification, with the accompanying chart 
(Fig. 14), emphasizes the great variation in distri- 
bution of rainfall over the dry-farm territory of the 
country. West of the Rocky Mountains the precipi- 
tation comes chiefly in winter and spring, leaving 
the summers rainless; while east of the Rockies, 
the winters are somewhat rainless and the precipi- 
tation comes chiefly in spring and summer. The 
Arizona type stands midway between these types. 
This variation in the distribution of the rainfall re- 
quires that different methods be employed in storing 
and conserving the rainfall for crop production. 
The adaptation of cultural methods to the seasonal 
distribution of rainfall will be discussed hereafter. 







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42 DRY-FARMING 

Snowfall 

Closely related to the distribution of the rainfall 
and the average annual temperature is the snowfall. 
Wherever a relatively large winter precipitation 
occurs, the dry-farmer is benefited if it comes in the 
form of snow. The fall-planted seeds are better 
protected by the snow ; the evaporation is lower and 
it appears that the soil is improved by the annual 
covering of snow. In any case, the methods of 
culture are in a measure dependent upon the amount 
of snowfall and the length of time that it lies upon 
the ground. ' 

Snow falls over most of the dry-farm territory, 
excepting the lowlands of California, the immediate 
Pacific coast, and other districts where the average 
annual temperature is high. The heaviest snowfall 
is in the intermountain district, from the west slope 
of the Sierra Nevadas to the east slope of the. Rockies. 
The degree of snowfall on the agricultural lands is 
very variable and dependent upon local conditions. 
Snow falls upon all the high mountain ranges. 

Temperature 

With the exceptions of portions of California, 
Arizona, and Texas the average annual surface 
temperature of the dry-farm territory of the United 
States ranges from 40° to 55° F. The average is 



TEMPERATURE AND DRY-FARMING 



43 



not far from 45° F. This places most of the dry- 
farm territory in the class of cold regions, though a 
small area on the extreme east border may be classed 
as temperate, and parts of California and Arizona 
as warm. The range in temperature from the high- 




FiG. 15. Winter in the Great Basin. A good snowfall in sections where 
the summer precipitation is light generally insures a good crop. 

est in summer to the lowest in winter is considerable, 
but not widely different from other similar parts of 
the United States. The range is greatest in the 
interior mountainous districts, and lowest along 
the seacoast. The daily range of the highest and 
lowest temperatures for any one day is generally 
higher over dry-farm sections than over humid 



44 DRY-FARMING 

districts. In the Plateau regions of the semiarid 
country the average daily variation is from 30 to 
35° F., while east of the Mississippi it is only about 
20° F. This greater daily range is chiefly due to the 
clear skies and scant vegetation which facilitate 
excessive warming by day and cooling by night. 

The important temperature question for the dry- 
farmer is whether the growing season is sufficiently 
warm and long to permit the maturing of crops. 
There are few places, even at ^high altitudes in the 
region considered, where the summer temperature 
is so low as to retard the growth of plants. Like- 
wise, the first and last killing frosts are ordinarily 
so far apart as to allow an ample growing season. 
It must be remembered that frosts are governed 
very largely by local topographic features, and must 
be known from a local point of view. It is a general 
law that frosts are more likely to occur in valleys 
than on hillsides, owing to the downward drainage 
of the cooled air. Further, the danger of frost in- 
creases with the altitude. In general, the last 
killing frost in spring over the dry-farm territory 
varies from March 15 to May 29, and the first killing 
frost in autumn from September 15 to November 15. 
These limits permit of the maturing of all ordinary 
farm crops, especially the grain crops. 



MOISTURE IN THE AIR 45 

Relat ive hu midity 

At a definite temperature, the atmosphere can hold 
only a certain amount of water vapor. When the 
air can hold no more, it is said to be saturated. 
When it is not saturated, the amount of water vapor 
actually held by the air is expressed in percentages of 
the quantity required for saturation. A relative hu- 
midity of 100 per cent means that the air is saturated ; 
of 50 per cent, that it is only one half saturated. The 
drier the air is, the more rapidly does the water evapo- 
rate into it. To the dry-farmer, therefore, the relative 
humidity or degree of dryness of the air is of very 
great importance. According to Professor Henry, 
the chief characteristics of the geographic distribu- 
tion of relative humidity in the United States are 
as follows : — 

(1) Along the coasts there is a belt of high humid- 
ity at all seasons, the percentage of saturation 
ranging from 75 to 80 per cent. 

(2) Inland, from about the 70th meridian east- 
ward to the Atlantic coast, the amount varies be- 
tween 70 and 75 per cent. 

(3) The dry region is in the Southwest, where the 
average annual value is not over 50 per cent. In this 
region are included Arizona, New Mexico, western 
Colorado, and the greater portion of both Utah and 
Nevada. The amount of annual relative humidity 
in the remaining portion of the elevated district. 



46 DRY-FARMING 

between the 100th meridian on the east to the 
Sierra Nevada and the Cascades on the west, 
varies between 55 and 65 per cent. In July, August, 
and September, the mean values in the South- 
west sink as low as 20 to 30 per cent, while along 
the Pacific coast districts they continue about 80 
per cent the year round. In the Atlantic coast 
districts, and generally east from the Mississippi 
River, the variation from month to month is not 
great. April is probably the driest month of the 
year. 

The air of the dry-farm territory, therefore, on the 
whole, contains considerably less than two thirds 
the amount of moisture carried by the air of the hu- 
mid states. This means that evaporation from 
plant leaves and soil surfaces will go on more rapidly 
in semiarid than in humid regions. Against this 
danger, which cannot be controlled, the dry-farmer 
must take special precautions. 

Sunshine 

The amount of sunshine in a dry-farm section is 
also of importance. Direct sunshine promotes plant 
growth, but at the same time it accelerates the 
evaporation of water from the soil. The whole 
dry-farm territory receives more sunshine than do 
the humid sections. In fact, the amount of sunshine 
may roughly be said to increase as the annual rain- 



RELATION OF WINDS 



47 



fall decreases. Over the larger part of the arid and 
semiarid sections the sun shines over 70 per cent of 
the time (Fig. 16). 

Winds 

The winds of any locality, owing to their moisture- 
dissipating power, play an important part in the 
success of dry- 
farming. A per- 
sistent wind will 
offset much of 
the benefit of a 
heavy rainfall 
and careful cul- 
tivation. While 
great general 
laws have been 
formulated re- 
garding the movements of the atmosphere, they are 
of minor value in judging the effect of wind on any 
farming district. Local observations, however, may 
enable the farmer to estimate the probable effect of 
the winds and thus to formulate proper cultural 
means of protection. In general, those living in a 
district are able to describe it without special obser- 
vations as windy or quiet. In the dry-farm terri- 
tory of the United States the one great region of 
relatively high and persistent winds is the Great 
Plains region east of the Rocky ^lountains. Dry- 




FiG. 16. Average annual number of hours of 
sunshine. (Cyclo. Am. Agr.) 



48 DRY-FARMING 

farmers in that section will of necessity be obliged 
to adopt cultural methods that will prevent the ex- 
cessive evaporation naturally induced by the un- 
hindered wind^ and the possible blowing of well-tilled 
fallow land. 

Summary 

The dry-farm territory is characterized by a low 
rainfall, averaging between 10 and 20 inches, the 
distribution of which falls into two distinct types: 
a heavy winter and spring with a light summer 
precipitation, and a heavy spring and summer with 
a light winter precipitation. Snow falls over most 
of the territory, but does not lie long outside of the 
mountain states. The whole dry-farm territory may 
be classed as temperate to cold; relatively high and 
persistent winds blow only over the Great Plains, 
though local conditions cause strong regular winds 
in many other places; the air is dry and the sun- 
shine is very abundant. In brief, httle water falls 
upon the dry-farm territory, and the climatic factors 
are of a nature to cause rapid evaporation. 

In view of this knowledge, it is not surprising that 
thousands of farmers, employing, often carelessly, 
agricultural methods developed in humid sections, 
have found only hardships and poverty on the 
present dry-farm empire of the United States. 



GENERAL CLIMATIC FEATURES 49 

Drouth 

Drouth is said to be the arch enemy of the dry- 
farmer, but few agree upon its meaning. For the 
purposes of this volume, drouth may be defined as a 
condition under which crops fail to mature because 
of an insufficient supply of water. Providence has 
generally been charged with causing drouths, but 
under the above definition, man is usually the cause. 
Occasionally, relatively dry years occur, but they 
are seldom dry enough to cause crop failures if 
proper methods of farming have been practiced. 
There are four chief causes of drouth : (1) Improper 
or careless preparation of the soil; (2) failure to 
store the natural precipitation in the soil; (3) 
failure to apply proper cultural methods for keep- 
ing the moisture in the soil until needed by plants, 
and (4) sowing too much seed for the available soil- 
moisture. 

Crop failures due to untimely frosts, blizzards, 
cyclones, tornadoes, or hail may perhaps be charged 
to Providence, but the dry-farmer must accept the 
responsibility for any crop injury resulting from 
drouth. A fairly accurate knowledge of the climatic 
conditions of the district, a good understanding of 
the principles of agriculture without irrigation under 
a low rainfall, and a vigorous application of these 
principles as adapted to the local climatic conditions 
will make dry-farm failures a rarity. 



CHAPTER V 



DRY-FARM SOILS 



Important as is the rainfall in making dry-farming 
successful, it is not more so than the soils of the dry- 
farms. On a shallow soil, or on one penetrated with 
gravel streaks, crop failures are probable even under 
a large rainfall; but a deep soil of uniform texture, 
unbroken by gravel or hardpan, in which much water 
may be stored, and which furnishes also an abun- 
dance of feeding space for the roots, will yield large 
crops even under a very small rainfall. Likewise, an 
infertile soil, though it be deep, and under a large 
precipitation, cannot be depended on for good crops ; 
but a fertile soil, though not quite so deep, nor under 
so large a rainfall, will almost invariably bring large 
crops to maturity. 

A correct understanding of the soil, from the sur- 
face to a depth of ten feet, is almost indispensable 
before a safe judgment can be pronounced upon the 
full dry-farm possibilities of a district. Especially is it 
necessary to know (a) the depth, (b) the uniformity 
of structure, and (c) the relative fertility of the 
soil, in order to plan an intelligent system of farming 

50 



DRY-FARM SOILS 51 

that will be rationally adapted to the rainfall and 
other climatic factors. 

It is a matter of regret that so much of our infor- 
mation concerning the soils of the dry-farm territory 
of the United States and other countries has been 
obtained according to the methods and for the needs 
of humid countries, and that, therefore, the special 
knowledge of our arid and semiarid soils needed 
for the development of diy-farming is small and 
fragmentary. What is known to-day concerning the 
nature of arid soils and their relation to cultural 
processes under a scanty rainfall is due very largely 
to the extensive researches and voluminous writings 
of Dr. E. W. Hilgard, who for a generation was in 
charge of the agricultural work of the state of Cali- 
fornia. Future students of arid soils must of neces- 
sity rest their investigations upon the pioneer work 
done by Dr. Hilgard. The contents of this chapter 
are in a large part gathered from Hilgard 's writings. 

The formation of soils 

"^o[\ is the more or less loose and friable material 
in which, by means of their roots, plants may or do 
find a foothold and nourishment, as well as other 
conditions of growth." Soil is formed by a complex 
process, broadly known as weathering, from the rocks 
which constitute the earth's crust. Soil is in fact 
only pulverized and altered rock. The forces that 



52 DRY-PAEMING 

produce soil from rocks are of two distinct classes : 
'physical and chemical. The physical agencies of soil 
production merely cause a pulverization of the 
rock; the chemical agencies, on the other hand, so 
thoroughly change the essential nature of the soil 
particles that they are no longer like the rock from 
which they were formed. 

Of the physical agencies, temperature changes are 
first in order of time, and perhaps of first importance. 
As the heat of the day increases, the rock expands, 
and as the cold night approaches, contracts. This 
alternate expansion and contraction, in time, cracks 
the surfaces of the rocks. Into the tiny crevices 
thus formed water enters from the falling snow or 
rain. When winter comes, the water in these cracks 
freezes to ice, and in so doing expands and widens 
each of the cracks. As these processes are repeated 
from day to day, from year to year, and from genera- 
tion to generation, the surfaces of the rocks crumble. 
The smaller rocks so formed are acted upon by the 
same agencies, in the same manner, and thus the 
process of pulverization goes on. 

It is clear, then, that the second great agency of 
soil formation, which always acts in conjunction with 
temperature changes, is freezing water. The rock 
particles formed in this manner are often washed 
down into the mountain valleys, there caught by 
great rivers, ground into finer dust, and at length 
deposited in the lower valleys. Moving water thus 



FORMATION OF DRY-FARM SOILS 53 

becomes another physical agency of soil production. 
Most of the soils covering the great dry-farm terri- 
tory of the United States and other countries have 
been formed in this way. 

In places, glaciers moving slowly down the canons 
crush and grind into powder the rock over which 
they pass and deposit it lower down as soils. In 
other places, where strong winds blow with frequent 
regularity, sharp soil grains are picked up by the air 
and hurled against the rocks, which, under this 
action, are carved into fantastic forms. In still other 
places, the strong winds carry soil over long distances 
to be mixed with other soils. Finally, on the sea- 
shore the great waves dashing against the rocks of 
the coast line, and rolling the mass of pebbles back 
and forth, break and pulverize the rock until soil is 
formed. Glaciers, winds, and waves are also, there- 
fore, physical agencies of soil formation. 

It may be noted that the result of the action of 
all these agencies is to form a rock powder, each 
particle of which preserves the composition that it 
had while it was a constituent part of the rock. It 
may further be noted that the chief of these soil- 
forming agencies act more vigorously in arid than 
in humid sections. Under the cloudless sky and dry 
atmosphere of regions of limited rainfall, the daily 
and seasonal temperature changes are much greater 
than in sections of greater rainfall. Consequently 
the pulverization of rocks goes on most rapidly in 



54 DRY-FARMING 

dry-farm districts. Constant heavy winds, which 
as soil formers are second only to temperature 
changes and freezing water, are also usually more 
common in arid than in humid countries. This is 
strikingly shown, for instance, on the Colorado 
desert and the Great Plains. 

The rock powder formed by the processes above 
described is continually being acted upon by agencies, 
the effect of which is to change its chemical compo- 
sition. Chief of these agencies is water, which exerts 
a solvent action on all known substances. Pure 
water exerts a strong solvent action, but when it 
has been rendered impure by a variety of substances, 
naturally occurring, its solvent action is greatly 
increased. 

The most effective water impurity, considering 
soil formation, is the gas, carbon dioxid. This gas 
is formed whenever plant or animal substances 
decay, and is therefore found, normally, in the 
atmosphere and in soils. Rains or flowing water 
gather the carbon dioxid from the atmosphere and 
the soil; few natural waters are free from it. The 
hardest rock particles are disintegrated by carbon- 
ated water, while limestones, or rocks containing 
lime, are readily dissolved. 

The result of the action of carbonated water upon 
soil particles is to render soluble, and therefore more 
available to plants, many of the important plant- 
foods. In this way the action of water, holding in 



FORMATION OF DRY-FARM SOILS 55 

solution carbon dioxid and other substances, tends 
to make the soil more fertile. 

The second great chemical agency of soil formation 
is the oxygen of the air. Oxidation is a process of 
more or less rapid burning, which tends to accelerate 
the disintegration of rocks. 

Finally, the plants growing in soils are powerful 
agents of soil formation. First, the roots forcing 
their way into the soil exert a strong pressure which 
helps to pulverize the soil grains ; secondly, the acids 
of the plant roots actually dissolve the soil, and third, 
in the mass of decaying plants, substances are formed, 
among them carbon dioxid, that have the power 
of making soils more soluble. 

It may be noted that moisture, carbon dioxid, 
and vegetation, the three chief agents inducing 
chemical changes in soils, are most active in humid 
districts. While, therefore, the physical agencies 
of soil formation are most active in arid climates, 
the same cannot be said of the chemical agencies. 
However, whether in arid or humid climates, the 
processes of soil formation, above outlined, are essen- 
tially those of the ''fallow'' or resting-period given 
to dry-farm lands. The fallow lasts for a few 
months or a year, while the process of soil forma- 
tion is always going on and has gone on for ages; 
the result, in quality though not in quantity, is the 
same — the rock particles are pulverized and the 
plant-foods are liberated. It must be remembered 



56 



DRY-FARMING 



in this connection that chmatic differences may and 
usually do influence materially the character of soils 
formed from one and the same kind of rock. 




Fig. 17. 



Soil is a mixture of particles of 
very varying size. 



Characteristics of arid soils 

The net result of the soil-forming processes above 
described is a rock powder containing a great variety 

of sizes of soil grains 
intermingled with 
clay. The larger soil 
grains are called 
sand ; the smaller, 
silt, and those that 
are so small that 
they do not settle 
from quiet water 
after 24 hours are known as clay. Compare Fig. 17. 
Clay differs materially from sand and silt, not only 
in size of particles, but also in properties and forma- 
tion. It is said that clay particles reach a degree 
of fineness equal to 2^5Vo of an inch. Clay itself, 
when wet and kneaded, becomes plastic and adhe- 
sive and is thus easily distinguished from sand. 
Because of these properties, clay is of great value 
in holding together the larger soil grains in relatively 
large aggregates which give soils the desired degree 
of tilth. Moreover, clay is very retentive of water, 
gases, and soluble plant-foods, which are important 



NATURE OF DRY-FARM SOILS 57 

factors in successful agriculture. Soils, in fact, are 
classified according to the amount of clay that they 
contain. Hilgard suggests the following classifi- 
cation : — 

Very sandy soils 0.5 to 3 per cent clay 

Ordinary sandy soils . . . . 3.0 to 10 per cent clay 

Sandy loams 10.0 to 15 per cent clay 

Clay loams 15.0 to 25 per cent clay 

Clay soils 25.0 to 35 per cent clay 

Heavy clay soils 35.0 per cent and over 

Clay may be formed from any rock containing some 
form of combined silica (quartz). Thus, granites 
and crystalline rocks generally, volcanic rocks, and 
shales will produce clay if subjected to the proper 
climatic conditions. In the formation of clay, the 
extremely fine soil particles are attacked by the soil 
water and subjected to deep-going chemical changes. 
In fact, clay represents the most finely pulverized 
and most highly decomposed and hence in a measure 
the most valuable portion of the soil. In the forma- 
tion of clay, water is the most active agent, and under 
humid conditions its formation is most rapid. 

It follows that dry-farm soils formed under a 
more or less rainless climate contain less clay than 
do humid soils. This difference is characteristic, 
and accounts for the statement frequently made that 
heavy clay soils are not the best for dry-farm pur- 
poses. The fact is, that heavy clay soils are very 
rare in arid regions ; if found at all, they have prob- 



58 DRY-FARMING 

ably been formed under abnormal conditions, as in 
high mountain valleys, or under prehistoric humid 
climates. 

Sand. — The sand-forming rocks that are not 
capable of clay production usually consist of uncom- 
bined silica or quartz, which when pulverized by the 
soil-forming agencies give a comparatively barren 
soil. Thus it has come about that ordinarily a clayey 
soil is considered '^strong" and a sandy soil ''weak.'^ 
Though this distinction is true in humid climates, 
where clay formation is rapid, it is not true in arid 
climates, where true clay is formed very slowly. 
Under conditions of deficient rainfall, soils are nat- 
urally less clayey, but as the sand and silt particles 
are produced from rocks which under humid condi- 
tions would yield clay, arid soils are not necessarily 
less fertile. 

Experiment has shown that the fertility in the 
sandy soils of arid sections is as large and as available 
to plants as in the clayey soils of humid regions. 
Experience in the arid section of America, in Egypt, 
India, and other desert-like regions has further 
proved that the sands of the deserts produce excel- 
lent crops whenever water is applied to them. The 
prospective dry-farmer, therefore, need not be afraid 
of a somewhat sandy soil, provided it has been formed 
under arid conditions. In truth, a degree of sandi- 
ness is characteristic of dry-farm soils. 

The humus content forms another characteristic 



NATURE OF DRY-FARM SOILS 59 

difference between arid and humid soils. In humid 
regions plants cover the soil thickly ; in arid regions 
they are bunched scantily over the surface; in the 
former case the decayed remnants of generations of 
plants form a large percentage of humus in the 
upper soil; in the latter, the scarcity of plant life 
makes the humus content low. Further, under an 
abundant rainfall the organic matter in the soil rots 
slowly; whereas in dry warm climates the decay 
is very complete. The prevailing forces in all coun- 
tries of deficient rainfall therefore tend to yield soils 
low in humus. 

While the total amount of humus in arid soils is 
very much lower than in humid soils, repeated investi- 
gation has shown that it contains about 3^ times 
more nitrogen than is found in humus formed under 
an abundant rainfall. Owing to the prevailing sandi- 
ness of dry-farm soils, humus is not needed so much 
to give the proper tilth to the soil as in the humid 
countries where the content of clay is so much higher. 
Since, for dry-farm purposes, the nitrogen content 
is the most important quality of the humus, the dif- 
ference between arid and humid soils, based upon 
the humus content, is not so great as would appear 
at first sight. 

Soil and subsoil. — In countries of abundant 
rainfall, a great distinction exists between the soil 
and the subsoil. The soil is represented by the upper 
few inches which are filled with the remnants of 



60 DRY-FARMING 

decayed vegetable matter and modified by plowing, 
harrowing, and other cultural operations. The sub- 
soil has been profoundly modified by the action of 
the heavy rainfall, which, in soaking through the 
soil, has carried with it the finest soil grains, espe- 
cially the clay, into the lower soil layers. 

In time, the subsoil has become more distinctly 
clayey than the topsoil. Lime and other soil ingre- 
dients have likewise been carried down by the rains 
and deposited at different depths in the soil or wholly 
washed away. Ultimately, this results in the re- 
moval from the topsoil of the necessary plant-foods 
and the accumulation in the subsoil of the fine clay 
particles which so compact the subsoil as to make 
it difficult for roots and even air to penetrate it. 
The normal process of weathering or soil disinte- 
gration will then g(3 on most actively in the topsoil, 
and the subsoil will remain unweathered and raw. 
This accounts for the well-known fact that in humid 
countries any subsoil that may have been plowed up 
is reduced to a normal state of fertility and crop 
production only after several years of exposure to 
the elements. The humid farmer, knowing this, is 
usually very careful not to let his plow enter the sub- 
soil to any great depth. 

In the arid regions or wherever a deficient rain- 
fall prevails, these conditions are entirely reversed. 
The light rainfall seldom completely fills the soil 
pores to any considerable depth, but it rather moves 



DRY-FARM SUBSOILS 61 

down slowly as a film, enveloi)irig the soil grains. 
The soluble materials of the soil are, in part at least, 
dissolved and carried down to the lower limit of the 
rain penetration, but the clay and other fine soil 
particles are not moved downward to any great ex- 
tent. These conditions leave the soil and subsoil 
of approximately equal porosity. Plant roots can 
then penetrate the soil deeply, and the air can move 
up and down through the soil mass freely and to 
considerable depths. As a result, arid soils are 
weathered and made suitable for plant nutrition to 
very great depths. In fact, in dry-farm regions 
there need be little talk about soil and subsoil, since 
the soil is uniform in texture and usually nearly so 
in composition, from the top down to a distance of 
many feet. 

Many soil sections 50 or more feet in depth are 
exposed in the dry-farming territory of the United 
States, and it has often been demonstrated that the 
subsoil to any depth is capable of producing, without 
further weathering, excellent yields of crops. This 
granular, permeable structure, characteristic of arid 
soils, is perhaps the most important single quality 
resulting from rock disintegration under arid condi- 
tions. As Hilgard remarks, it would seem that the 
farmer in the arid region owns from three to four 
farms, one above the other, as compared with the 
same acreage in the eastern states. 

This condition is of the greatest im})ortance in 



62 DRY-FARMING 

developing the principles upon which successful dry- 
farming rests. Further, it may be said that while 
in the humid East the farmer must be exl^remely 
careful not to turn up with his plow too much of 
the inert subsoil, no such fear need possess the 
western farmer. On the contrary, he should use 
his utmost endeavor to plow as deeply as possible 
in order to prepare the very best reservoir for the 
falling waters and a place for the development of 
plant roots. Figure 18 shows graphically the dif- 
ference existing between the soils of the arid and 
humid regions. 

Gravel seams. — It need be said, however, that 
in a number of localities in the dry-farm territory 
the soils have been deposited by the action of running 
water in such a way that the otherwise uniform 
structure of the soil is broken by occasional layers 
of loose gravel. While this is not a very serious 
obstacle to the downward penetration of roots, it 
is very serious in dry-farming, since any break in 
the continuity of the soil mass prevents the upward 
movement of water stored in the lower soil depths. 
The dry-farmer should investigate the soil which he 
intends to use to a depth of at least 8 to 10 feet to 
make sure, first of all, that he has a continuous soil 
mass, not too clayey in the lower depths, nor broken 
by deposits of gravel. 

Hardpan. — Instead of the heavy clay subsoil of 
humid regionS; the so-called hardpan occurs in 



HUMID AND DRY-FARM SOILS 



63 



HUMID 
SOIL 




i_ SUB50IL .1 




i CLAY OR^ 

TILL OR .5 

I. GRAVEL ,i 













ARID 
SOIL 






^■'' 



w^ 



i 



^UNlfORM : 

'""'mass 




ARID SOIL 
FAULTY 






SOIL 






C..-F=\. 




I 



Fig. 18. Difference in structure between humid and arid soil. The third 
section, though arid, is questionable for dry-farming. The gravel 
streaks break the continuity of the soil mass. (Adapted from Hil- 
gard.) 



64 DRY-FARMING 

regions of limited rainfall. The annual rainfall, 
which is approximately constant, penetrates from 
year to year very nearly to the same depth. Some 
of the lime found so abundantly in arid soils is dis- 
solved and worked down yearly to the lower limit of 
the rainfall and left there to enter into combination 
with other soil ingredients. Continued through long 
periods of time this results in the formation of a 
layer of calcareous material at the average depth to 
which the rainfall has penetrated the soil. Not 
only is the lime thus carried down, but the finer 
particles are carried down in like manner. Espe- 
cially where the soil is poor in lime is the clay worked 
down to form a somewhat clayey hardpan. A hard- 
pan formed in such a manner is frequently a serious 
obstacle to the downward movement of the roots, 
and also prevents the annual precipitation from 
moving down far enough to be beyond the influence 
of the sunshine and winds. It is fortunate, how- 
ever, that in the great majority of instances this 
hardpan gradually disappears under the influence of 
proper methods of dry- farm tillage. Deep plowing 
and proper tillage, which allow the rain waters to 
penetrate the soil, gradually break up and destroy 
the hardpan, even when it is 10 feet below the sur- 
face. Nevertheless, the farmer should make sure 
whether or not the hardpan does exist in the soil 
and plan his methods accordingly. If a hardpan 
is present, the land must be fallowed more carefully 



LEACHING IN DRY-FARM SOILS 65 

every other year, so that a large quantity of water 
may be stored in the soil to open and destroy the 
hardpan. 

Of course, in arid as in liuniid countries, it often 
happens that a soil is underlaid, more or less near the 
surface, by layers of rock, marl deposits, and similar 
impervious or hurtful substances. Such deposits 
are not to be classed with the hardpans that occur 
normally wherever the rainfall is small. 

Leaching. — Fully as important as any of the 
differences above outlined are those which depend 
definitely upon the leaching power of a heavy rain- 
fall. In countries where the rainfall is 30 inches or 
over, and in many places where the rainfall is con- 
siderably less, the water drains through the soil into 
the standing ground water. There is, therefore, in 
humid countries, a continuous drainage through the 
soil after every rain, and in general there is a steady 
downward movement of soil-water throughout the 
year. As is clearly shown by the appearance, taste, 
and chemical composition of drainage waters, this 
process leaches out considerable quantities of the 
soluble constituents of the soil. 

Wlien the soil contains decomposing organic 
matter, such as roots, leaves, stalks, the gas carbon 
dioxid is formed, which, when dissolved in water, 
forms a solution of great solvent power. Water 
passing through well-cultivated soils containing much 
humus leaches out very much more material than 



66 DRY-FARMING 

pure water could do. A study of the composition 
of the drainage waters from soils and the waters of 
the great rivers shows that immense quantities of 
soluble soil constituents are taken out of the soil 
in countries of abundant rainfall. These materials 
ultimately reach the ocean, where they are and have 
been concentrated throughout the ages. In short, 
the saltiness of the ocean is due to the substances 
that have been washed from the soils in countries 
of abundant rainfall. 

In arid regions, on the other hand, the rainfall 
penetrates the soil only a few feet. In time, it is 
returned to the surface by the action of plants or 
sunshine and evaporated into the air. It is true 
that under proper methods of tillage even the light 
rainfall of arid and semiarid regions may be made to 
pass to considerable soil depths, yet there is little 
if any drainage of water through the soil into the 
standing ground water. The arid regions of the 
world, therefore, contribute proportionately a small 
amount of the substances which make up the salt 
of the sea. 

Alkali soils. — Under favorable conditions it 
sometimes happens that the soluble materials, which 
would normally be washed out of humid soils, accu- 
mulate to so large a degree in arid soils as to make 
the lands unfitted for agricultural purposes. Such 
lands are called alkali lands. Unwise irrigation in 
arid climates frequently produces alkali spots, but 



DRY-FARM SOILS 



67 



many occur naturally. Such soils should not be 
chosen for dry-farm purposes, for they are likely to 
give trouble. 




Fig. 19. Typical deep and soil, well adapted for dry-farnnng. Utah. 

Plant-food content. — This condition necessarily 
leads at once to the suggestion that the soils from the 



68 



DRY-FARMING 



two regions must differ greatly in their fertility or 
power to produce and sustain plant life. It cannot 
be believed that the water-washed soils of the East 
retain as much fertility as the dry soils of the West. 
Hilgard has made a long and elaborate study of this 
somewhat difficult question and has constructed a 
table showing the composition of typical soils of 
representative states in the arid and humid regions. 
The following table shows a few of the average results 
obtained by him : — 





Number 

of 

Samples 

Analyzed 


Partial Percentage Composition 


Source of 
Soil 


Insoluble 
Residue 


Soluble 
Silica 


Alumina 


Lime 


Potash 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


Humus 


Humid region 
Arid region 


696 
573 


84.17 
69.16 


4.04 
6.71 


3.66 
7.61 


0.13 
1.43 


0.21 
0.67 


0.12 
0.16 


1.22 
1.13 



Soil chemists have generally attempted to arrive 
at a determination of the fertility of soil by treating 
a carefully selected and prepared sample with a 
certain amount of acid of definite strength. The 
portion which dissolves under the influence of acids 
has been looked upon as a rough measure of the pos- 
sible fertility of the soil. 

The column headed ^'Insoluble Residue" shows 
the average proportions of arid and humid soils 
which remain undissolved by acids. It is evident 
at once that the humid soils are much less soluble 



CONTENT OF DRY-FARM SOILS 69 

in acids than arid soils, tlic difference being 84 to 
69. Since the only plant-food in soils that may be 
used for plant production is that which is soluble, 
it follows that it is safe to assume that arid soils are 
generally more fertile than humid soils. This is 
borne out by a study of the constituents of the soil. 
For instance, potash, one of the essential plant 
foods ordinarily present in sufficient amount, is found 
in humid soils to the extent of 0.21 per cent, while in 
arid soils the quantity present is 0.67 per cent, or over 
three times as much. Phosphoric acid, another of 
the very important plant-foods, is present in arid 
soils in only slightly higher quantities than in humid 
soils. This explains the somewhat well-known fact 
that the first fertilizer ordinarily required by arid 
soils is some form of phosphorus. 

The difference in the chemical composition of arid 
and humid soils is perhaps shown nowhere better 
than in the lime content. There is nearly eleven 
times more lime in arid than in humid soils. Con- 
ditions of aridity favor strongly the formation of 
lime, and since there is very little leaching of the soil 
by rainfall, the lime accumulates in the soil. 

The presence of large quantities of lime in arid 
soils has a number of distinct advantages, among 
which the following are most important: (1) It 
prevents the sour condition frequently present in 
humid climates, where much organic material is 
incorporated with the soil. (2) When other con- 



70 DRY-FARMING 

ditions are favorable, it encourages bacterial life, 
which, as is now a well-known fact, is an important 
factor in developing and maintaining soil fertility. 
(3) By somewhat subtle chemical changes it makes 
the relatively small percentages of other plant-foods, 
notably phosphoric acid and potash, more available 
for plant growth. (4) It aids to convert rapidly 
organic matter into humus which represents the main 
portion of the nitrogen content of the soil. 

Of course, an excess of lime in the soil may be 
hurtful, though less so in arid than in humid re- 
gions. Some authors state that from 8 to 20 per 
cent of calcium carbonate makes a soil unfitted for 
plant growth. There are, however, a great many 
agricultural soils covering large areas and yielding 
very abundant crops which contain very much larger 
quantities of calcium carbonate. For instance, in 
the Sanpete Valley of Utah, one of the most fertile 
sections of the Great Basin, agricultural soils often 
contain as high as 40 per cent of calcium carbonate, 
without injury to their crop-producing power. 

In the table are two columns headed ''Soluble 
Silica" and ''Alumina," in both of which it is evident 
that a very much larger per cent is found in the arid 
than in the humid soils. These soil constituents 
indicate the condition of the soil with reference to 
the availability of its fertility for plant use. The 
higher the percentage of soluble silica and alumina, 
the more thoroughly decomposed, in all probability, 



COMPOSITION OF DRY-FARM SOILS 71 

is the soil as a whole and the more readily can plants 
secure their nutriment from the soil. It will be 
observed from the table, as previously stated, that 
more humus is found in humid than in arid soils, 
though the difference is not so large as might be ex- 
pected. It should be recalled, however, that the 
nitrogen content of humus formed under rainless 
conditions is many times larger than that of humus 
formed in rainy countries, and that the smaller per 
cent of humus in dry-farming countries is thereby 
offset. * 

All in all, the composition of arid soils is very 
much more favorable to plant growth than that of 
humid soils. As will be shown in Chapter IX, the 
greater fertility of arid soils is one of the chief reasons 
for dry-farming success. Depth of the soil alone 
does not suffice. There must be a large amount of 
high fertility available for plants in order that the 
small amount of water can be fully utilized in plant 
growth. 

Summary of characteristics. — Arid soils differ 
from humid soils in that they contain: less clay; 
more sand, but of fertile nature because it is derived 
from rocks that in humid countries would produce 
clay; less humus, but that of a kind which contains 
about 3|- times more nitrogen than the humus of 
humid soils ; more lime, which helps in a variety of 
ways to improve the agricultural value of soils; 
more of all the essential plant-foods, because the 




Fig. 20. Gravelly soil. Not adapted for dry-farming. 



SUMMARY ON DRY-FARM SOILS 73 

leaching b}" downward drainage is very small in 
countries of limited rainfall. 

Further, arid soils show no real difference between 
soil and subsoil; they are deeper and more perme- 
able; they are more uniform in structure; they 
have hardpans instead of clay subsoil, which, how- 
ever, disappear under the influence of cultivation; 
their subsoils to a depth of ten feet or more are as 
fertile as the topsoil, and the availability of the 
fertility is greater. The failure to recognize these 
characteristic differences between arid and humid 
soils has been the chief cause for many crop failures 
in the more or less rainless regions of the world. 

This brief review shows that, everything considered, 
arid soils are superior to humid soils. In ease of 
handling, productivity, certainty of crop-lasting 
quality, they far surpass the soils of the countries 
in .which scientific agriculture was founded. As 
Hilgard has suggested, the historical datum that the 
majority of the most populous and powerful histor- 
ical peoples of the world have been located on soils 
that thirst for water, may find its explanation in the 
intrinsic value of arid soils. From Babylon to the 
United States is a far cry; but it is one that shouts 
to the world the superlative merits of the soil that 
begs for water. To learn how to use the '^desert" 
is to make it '' blossom like the rose." 



74 DRY-FARMING 

Soil divisions 

The dry-farm territory of the United States may 
be divided roughly into five great soil districts, each 
of which includes a great variety of soil types, most 
of which are poorly known and mapped. These 
districts are : — 

1. Great Plains district. 

2. Columbia River district. 

3. Great Basin district. 

4. Colorado River district. 

5. California district. 

Great Plains district. — On the eastern slope of 
the Rocky Mountains, extending eastward to the 
extreme boundary of the dry-farm territory, are the 
soils of the High Plains and the Great Plains. This 
vast soil district belongs to the drainage basin of the 
Missouri, and includes North and South Dakota, 
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and parts of Mon- 
tana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and 
Minnesota. The soils of this district are usually of 
high fertility. They have good lasting power, 
though the effect of the higher rainfall is evident in 
their composition. Many of the distinct types of 
the plains soils have been determined with consider- 
able care by Snyder and Lyon, and may be found 
described in Bailey's ^^ Cyclopedia of American Agri- 
culture," Vol. I. 

Columbia River district. — The second great soil 



DISTRICTS OF DRY-FARM SOILS 75 

district of the dry-farming territory is located in 
the drainage basin of the Columbia River, and 
includes Idaho and the eastern two thirds of Wash- 
ington and Oregon. The high plains of this soil 
district are often spoken of as the Palouse country. 
The soils of the western part of this district are of 
basaltic origin ; over the southern part of Idaho the 
soils have been made from a somewhat recent lava 
flow which in many places is only a few feet below 
the surface. The soils of this district are generally 
of volcanic origin and very much alike. They are 
characterized by the properties which normally 
belong to volcanic soils; somewhat poor in lime, 
but rich in potash and phosphoric acid. They 
last well under ordinary methods of tillage. 

The Great Basin. — The third great soil district 
is included in the Great Basin, which covers nearly 
all of Nevada, half of Utah, and takes small portions 
out of Idaho, Oregon, and southern California. 
This basin has no outlet to the sea. Its rivers empty 
into great saline inland lakes, the chief of which is 
the Great Salt Lake. The sizes of these interior 
lakes are determined by the amounts of water flow- 
ing into them and the rates of evaporation of the 
water into the dry air of the region. 

In recent geological times, the Great Basin was 
filled with water, forming a vast fresh-water lake 
known as Lake Bonneville, which drained into the 
Columbia River. Durino; the existence of this lake 



76 DRY-FARMING 

soil materials were washed from the mountains into 
the lake and deposited on the lake bottom. When^ 
at length, the lake disappeared, the lake bottom 
was exposed and is now the farming lands of the 
Great Basin district. The soils of this district are 
characterized by great depth and uniformity, an 
abundance of lime, and all the essential plant-foods 
with the exception of phosphoric acid, which, while 
present in normal quantities, is not unusually 
abundant. The Great Basin soils are among the 
most fertile on the American Continent. 

Colorado River district. — The fourth soil district 
lies in the drainage basin of the Colorado River. 
It includes much of the southern part of Utah, the 
eastern part of Colorado, part of New Mexico, nearly 
all of Arizona, and part of southern California. This 
district, in its northern part, is often spoken of as 
the High Plateaus. The soils are formed from the 
easily disintegrated rocks of comparatively recent 
geological origin, which themselves are said to have 
been formed from deposits in a shallow interior sea 
which covered a large part of the West. The rivers 
running through this district have cut immense 
cafions with perpendicular walls which make much 
of this country difficult to traverse. Some of the 
soils are of an extremely fine nature, settling firmly 
and requiring considerable tillage before they are 
brought to a proper condition of tilth. In many 
places the soils are heavily charged with calcium 



DISTRICTS OF DRY-FARM SOILS 77 

sulphate, or crystals of the ordinary land plaster. 
The fertility of the soils, however, is high, and when 
they are properly cultivated, they yield large and 
excellent crops. 

California district. — The fifth soil district lies 
in California in the basin of the Sacramento and 
San Joaquin rivers. The soils are of the typical 
arid kind of high fertility and great lasting powers. 
They represent some of the most valuable dry-farm 
districts of the West. These soils have been studied 
in detail by Hilgard. 

Dry-farming in the five districts. — It is interesting 
to note that in all of these five great soil districts 
dry-farming has been tried with great success. 
Even in the Great Basin and the Colorado River 
districts, where extreme desert conditions often 
prevail and where the rainfall is slight, it has been 
found possible to produce profitable crops without 
irrigation. It is unfortunate that the study of the 
dry-farming territory of the United States has not 
progressed far enough to permit a comprehensive 
and correct mapping of its soils. Our knowledge 
of this subject is, at the best, fragmentary. We 
know, however, with certainty that the properties 
which characterize arid soils, as described in this 
chapter, are possessed by the soils of the dry-farming 
territory, including the five great districts just 
enumerated. The characteristics of arid soils in- 
crease as the rainfall decreases and other conditions 



78 DRY-FARMING 

of aridity increase. They are less marked as we go 
eastward or westward toward the regions of more 
abundant rainfall; that is to say, the most highly 
developed arid soils are found in the Great Basin 
and Colorado River districts. The least developed 
are on the eastern edge of the Great Plains. 

The judging of soils 

A chemical analysis of a soil, unless accompanied 
by a large amount of other information, is of little 
value to the farmer. The main points in judging a 
prospective dry-farm are : the depth of the soil, the 
uniformity of the soil to a depth of at least 10 feet, 
the native vegetation, the climatic conditions as 
relating to early and late frosts, the total annual rain- 
fall and its distribution, and the kinds and yields of 
crops that have been grown in the neighborhood. 

The depth of the soil is best determined by the use 
of an auger (Fig. 21). A simple soil auger is made 
from the ordinary carpenter's auger, 1^ to 2 inches 
in diameter, by lengthening its shaft to 3 feet or 
more. Where it is not desirable to carry sectional 
augers, it is often advisable to have three augers 
made : one 3 feet, the other 6, and the third 9 or 10 
feet in length. The short auger is used first and the 
others afterwards as the depth of the boring in- 
creases. The boring should be made in a large 
number of average places — preferably one boring or 



JUDGING DRY-FARM SOILS 



79 



more on each acre if time and circumstances permit 
— and the results entered on a map of the farm. 
The uniformity of the soil is observed as the 
boring progresses. 
If gravel layers ex- 
ist, they will neces- 
sarily stop the prog- 
ress of the boring. 
Hardpans of any 
kind will also be re- 
vealed by such an 
examination. 

The climatic in- 
formation must be 
gathered from the 
local weather bureau 
and from older resi- 
dents of the section. 

The native vege- 
tation is ahvays an 
excellent index of 
dry-farm possibil- 
ities. If a good 

stand of native Fig. 21. Soil augers. The subsoil of every 

grasses exists, there iTouTugtf "^ """ ''"^"'^ """^ """ 
can scarcely be any 

doubt about the ultimate success of dry-farming 
under proper cultural methods. A healthy crop of 
sagebrush is an almost absolutely certain indication 



80 DRY-FARMING 

that farming without irrigation is feasible. The 
rabbit brush of the drier regions is also usually a good 
indication, though it frequently indicates a soil not 
easily handled. Greasewood, shadscale, and other 
related plants ordinarily indicate heavy clay soils, 
frequently charged with alkali. Such soils should be 
the last choice for dry-farming purposes, though they 
usually give good satisfaction under systems of irriga- 
tion. If the native cedar or other native trees grow 
in profusion, it is another indication of good dry- 
farm possibilities. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE ROOT SYSTEMS OF PLANTS 

The great depth and high fertiUty of the soils of 
arid and semiarid regions have made possible the 
profitable production of agricultural plants under a 
rainfall very much lower than that of humid regions. 
To make the principles of this system fully under- 
stood, it is necessary to review briefly our knowl- 
edge of the root systems of plants growing under 
arid conditions. 

Functions of roots 

The roots serve at least three distinct uses or 
purposes: First, they give the plant a foothold in 
the earth; secondly, they enable the plant to secure 
from the soil the large amount of w^ater needed in 
plant growth, and, thirdly, they enable the plant 
to secure the indispensable mineral foods which can 
be obtained only from the soil. So important is 
the proper supply of water and food in the growth 
of a plant that, in a given soil, the crop yield is usu- 
ally in direct proportion to the development of the 
root system. Whenever the roots are hindered in 
their development, the growth of the plant above 

Q 81 



82 



DRY-FARMING 








Fig. 22. WTieat roots. 



groimd is likewise re- 
tarded, and crop failure 
may result. The impor- 
tance of roots is not fully 
appreciated because they 
are hidden from direct 
view. Successful dry- 
farming consists, largely, 
in the adoption of prac- 
tices that facilitate a full 
and free development of 
plant roots. Were it not 
that the nature of arid 
soils, as explained in pre- 
ceding chapters, is such 
that full root develop- 
ment is comparatively 
easy, it would probably 
be useless to attempt to 
estabhsh a system of drv'- 
farming. 

Kinds of roots 

The root is the part of 
the plant that is found 
underground. It has nu- 
merous branches, twigs, 
and filaments. The root 



THE ROOT SYSTEMS OF PLANTS 



83 



which first forms 
when the seed bui*sts 
is known as the pri- 
mar\' root. From this 
primary root other 
roots develop, whicli 
are known as second- 
ary roots. Wlien the 
primary root grows 
more rapidly than the 
secondary roots, the 
so-called taproot, 
characteristic of lu- 
cern, clover, and sim- 
ilar plants, is formed, t 
When, on the other ? 
hand, the taproot [ 
gi'ows slowly or ceases ! 
its growth, and the 
numerous secondary 
roots grow long, a 
fibrous root system 
results, which is char- 
acteristic of the ce- 
reals, grasses, corn, 
and other similar 
plants. With any 
type of root, the tend- 
ency of gi'owth is 



6 




!2 



I 



iL^M 




f IG. 23. Alfalfa roots. 



84 DRY-FARMING 

downward; though under conditions that are not 
favorable for the downward penetration of the roots 
the lateral extensions may be very large and near the 
surface (Figs. 22, 23). 

Extent of roots 

A number of investigators have attempted to 
determine the weight of the roots as compared 
with the weight of the plant above ground, but the 
subject, because of its great experimental difficul- 
ties, has not been very accurately explained. Schu- 
macher, experimenting about 1867, found that the 
roots of a well-established field of clover weighed as 
much as the total we ght of the stems and leaves of 
the year's crop, and that the weight of roots of an 
oat crop was 43 per cent of the total weight of seed 
and straw. Nobbe, a few years later, found in one 
of his experiments that the roots of timothy weighed 
31 per cent of the weight of the hay. Hosseus, 
investigating the same subject about the same time, 
found that the weight of roots of one of the brome 
grasses was as great as the weight of the part above 
ground ; of serradella, 77 per cent ; of flax, 34 per cent ; 
of oats, 14 per cent ; of barley, 13 per cent, and of 
peas, 9 per cent. Sanborn, working at the Utah 
Station in 1893, found results very much the same. 

Although these results are not concordant, they 
show that the weight of the roots is considerable, 



EXTENT OF THE ROOT SYSTEMS 85 

in many cases far beyond the i)elief of those who have 
given the subject httle or no attention. It may be 
noted that on the basis of the figures above obtained, 
it is very probable that the roots in one acre of an 
average wheat crop would weigh in the neighbor- 
hood of a thousand pounds — possibly consider- 
ably more. It should be remembered that the 
investigations which yielded the preceding results 
were all conducted in humid climates and at a time 
when the methods for the study of the root systems 
were poorly developed. The data obtained, there- 
fore, represent, in all probability, minimum results 
which would be materially increased should the work 
be repeated now. 

The relative weights of the roots and the stems and 
the leaves do not alone show the large quantity 
of roots ; the total lengths of the roots are even more 
striking. The German investigator, Nobbe, in a 
laborious experiment conducted about 1867, added 
the lengths of all the fine roots from each of various 
plants. He found that the total length of roots, that 
is, the sum of the lengths of all the roots, of one wheat 
plant was about 268 feet, and that the total length 
of the roots of one plant of rye was about 385 feet. 
King, of Wisconsin, estimates that in one of his ex- 
periments, one corn plant produced in the upper 3 
feet of soil 1452 feet of roots. These surprisingly 
large numbers indicate with emphasis the thorough- 
ness with which the roots invade the soil. Fig- 



86 DRY-FARMING 

ures 22-26 further give an idea of the degree to 
which roots fill the soil. 



Depth of root penetration 

The earlier root studies did not pretend to deter- 
mine the depth to which roots actually penetrate 
the earth. In recent years, however, a number of 
carefully conducted experiments were made by the 
New York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, 
and especially the North Dakota stations to obtain 
accurate information concerning the depth to which 
agricultural plants penetrate soils. It is some- 
what regrettable, for the purpose of dry-farming, 
that these states, with the exception of Colorado, 
are all in the humid or sub-humid area of the United 
States. Nevertheless, the conclusions drawn from 
the work are such that they may be Safely applied 
in the development of the principles of dry-farming. 

There is a general belief among farmers that the 
roots of all cultivated crops are very near the surface 
and that few reach a greater depth than one or two 
feet. The first striking result of the American inves- 
tigations was that every crop, without exception, 
penetrates the soil deeper than was thought possible 
in earlier days. For examiple, it was found that 
corn roots penetrated fully four feet into the ground 
and that they fully occupied all of the soil to that 
depth. 



DEPTH OF ROOT SYSTEMS 



87 



On deeper and somewhat drier soils, corn roots 
went down as far as eight feet. The roots of the 




Fig. 24. Sugar-beet roots. 



small grains, — wheat, oats, barley, — penetrated 
the soil from four to eight or ten feet. Vari- 
ous perennial grasses rooted to a depth of four feet 
the first year; the next year, five and one half feet; 



88 DRY-FARMING 

no determinations were made of the depth of the 
roots in later years, though it had undoubtedly 
increased. Alfalfa was the deepest rooted of all 
the crops studied by the American stations. Potato 
roots filled the soil fully to a depth of three feet; 
sugar beets to a depth of nearly four feet. 

In every case, under conditions prevailing in the 
experiments, and which did not have in mind the 
forcing of the roots down to extraordinary depths, 
it seemed that the normal depth of the roots of ordi- 
nary field crops was from three to eight feet. Sub- 
soiling and deep plowing enable the roots to go 
deeper into the soil. This work has been confirmed 
in ordinary experience until there can be little ques- 
tion about the accuracy of the results. 

Almost all of these results were obtained in humid 
climates on humid soils, somewhat shallow, and 
underlaid by a more or less infertile subsoil. In 
fact, they were obtained under conditions really 
unfavorable to plant growth. It has been explained 
in Chapter V that soils formed under arid or semi- 
arid conditions are uniformly deep and porous and 
that the fertility of the subsoil is, in most cases, 
practically as great as of the topsoil. There is, 
therefore, in arid soils, an excellent opportunity 
for a comparatively easy penetration of the roots 
to great depths and, because of the available fertility, 
a chance throughout the whole of the subsoil for 
ample root development. Moreover, the porous 



ROOT SYSTEMS IN ARID SOILS 



89 



condition of the soil permits the entrance of air, which 
helps to purify the soil atmosphere and thereby to 
make the conditions more favorable for root develop- 
ment. Consequently it is to be expected that, in 



fJf 




Fig. 25. Corn roots. 

arid regions, roots will ordinarily go to a much greater 
depth than in humid regions. 

It is further to be remembered that roots are in 
constant search of food and water and are hkely to 
develop in the directions where there is the greatest 
abundance of these materials. Under systems of 
dry-farming the soil water is stored more or less 
uniformly to considerable depths — ten feet or more 
— and in most cases the percentage of moisture in 



90 DKY-FARMING 

the spring and summer is as large or larger some feet 
below the surface than in the upper two feet. The 
tendency of the root is, then, to move downward to 
depths where there is a larger supply of water. 
Especially is this tendency increased by the avail- 
able soil fertility found throughout the whole depth 
of the soil mass. 

It has been argued that in many of the irrigated 
sections the roots do not penetrate the soil to 
great depths. This is true, because by the present 
wasteful methods of irrigation the plant receives so 
much water at such untimely seasons that the roots 
acquire the habit of feeding very near the surface 
where the water is so lavishly applied. This means 
not only that the plant suffers more greatly in times 
of drouth, but that, since the feeding ground of the 
roots is smaller, the crop is likely to be small. 

These deductions as to the depth to which plant 
roots will penetrate the soil in arid regions are fully 
corroborated by experiments and general observa- 
tion. The workers of the Utah Station have repeat- 
edly observed plant roots on dry-farms to a depth 
of ten feet. Lucern roots from thirty to fifty feet 
in length are frequently exposed in the gullies formed 
by the mountain torrents. Roots of trees, similarly, 
go down to great depths. Hilgard observes that 
he has found roots of grapevines at a depth of 
twenty-two feet below the surface, and quotes Aughey 
as having found roots of the native Shepherdia in 



ROOT SYSTEMS IN ARID SOILS 



91 



Nebraska to a depth of fifty feet. Hilgard further 
declares that in Cahfornia fibrous-rooted plants, 
such as wheat and barley, may descend in sandy 
soils from four to seven feet. Orchard trees in the 




Fig. 26. Difference in root systems under humid and arid conditions. 

arid West, grown properly, are similarly observed 
to send their roots down to great depths. In fact, 
it has become a custom in many arid regions where 
the soils are easily penetrable to say that the root 
system of a tree corresponds in extent and branching 
to the part of the tree above ground. 



92 DRY-FARMING 

Now, it is to be observed that, generally, plants 
grown in dry climates send their roots straight down 
into the soil; whereas in humid chmates, where the 
topsoil is quite moist and the subsoil is hard, roots 
branch out laterally and fill the upper foot or two 
of the soil. This difference is made clear by the 
illustrations herewith produced (Fig. 26). A great 
deal has been said and written about the danger of 
deep cultivation, because it tends to injure the roots 
that feed near the surface. However true this may 
be in humid countries, it is not vital in the districts 
primarily interested in dry-farming ; and it is doubt- 
ful if the objection is as valid in humid countries as 
is often declared. True, deep cultivation, especially 
when performed near the plant or tree, destroys 
the surface-feeding roots, but this only tends to com- 
pel the deeper lying roots to make better use of the 
subsoil. 

When, as in arid regions, the subsoil is fertile and 
furnishes a sufficient amount of water, destroying 
the surface roots is no handicap whatever. On the 
contrary, in times of drouth, the deep-lying roots 
feed and drink at their leisure far from the hot sun 
or withering winds, and the plants survive and arrive 
at rich maturity, while the plants with shallow roots 
wither and die or are so seriously injured as to pro- 
duce an inferior crop. Therefore, in the system of 
dry-farming as developed in this volume, it must be 
understood that so far as the farmer has power, 



ADVANTAGE OF DEEP ROOTING 93 

the roots must be driven downward into the soil, 
and that no injury needs to be apprehended from 
deep and vigorous cultivation. 

One of the chief attempts of the dry-farmer must 
be to see to it that the plants root deeply. This can 
be done only by preparing the right kind of seed-bed 
and by having the soil in its lower depths well stored 
with moisture, so that the plants may be invited to 
descend. For that reason, an excess of moisture 
in the upper soil when the young plants are rooting 
is really an injury to them. 



CHAPTER VII 

STORING WATER IN THE SOIL 

The large amount of water required for the pro- 
duction of plant substance is taken from the soil by 
the roots. Leaves and stems do not absorb appre- 
ciable quantities of water. The scanty rainfall of 
dry-farm districts or the more abundant precipita- 
tion of humid regions must, therefore, be made to 
enter the soil in such a manner as to be readily avail- 
able as soil-moisture to the roots at the right periods 
of plant growth. 

In humid countries, the rain that falls during the 
growing season is looked upon, and very properly, as 
the really effective factor in the production of large 
crops. The root systems of plants grown under 
such humid conditions are near the surface, ready 
to absorb immediately the rains that fall, even if 
they do not soak deeply into the soil. As has been 
shown in Chapter IV, it is only over a small portion 
of the dry-farm territory that the bulk of the scanty 
precipitation occurs during the growing season. 
Over a large portion of the arid and semiarid region 
the summers are almost rainless and the bulk of the 
precipitation comes in the winter, late fall, or early 

94 



STORING WATER IN THE SOIL 95 

spring when plants are not growing. If the rains 
that fall during the growing season are indispensable 
in crop production, the possible area to be reclaimed 
by dry-farming will be greatly limited. Even when 
much of the total precipitation comes in summer, 
the amount in dry-farm districts is seldom sufficient 
for the proper maturing of crops. In fact, successful 
dry-farming depends chiefly upon the success with 
which the rains that fall during any season of the 
year may be stored and kept in the soil until needed 
by plants in their growth. The fundamental opera- 
tions of dry-farming include a soil treatment which 
enables the largest possible proportion of the annual 
precipitation to be stored in the soil. For this pur- 
pose, the deep, somewhat porous soils, characteristic 
of arid regions, are unusually well adapted. 

Alway^s demonstration 

An important and unique demonstration of the 
possibility of bringing crops to maturity on the 
moisture stored in the soil at the time of planting 
has been made by Alway (Fig. 27). Cylinders of 
galvanized iron, 6 feet long, were filled with soil 
as nearly as possible in its natural position and con- 
dition. Water was added until seepage began, after 
which the excess was allowed to drain away. When 
the seepage had closed, the cylinders were entirely 
closed except at the surface. Sprouted grains of 






a 




0) 


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QQ 






^llilii 


>> 


_,^,^^Qjjji[j£g 


03 


I^^HBEp 


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CC 


^ 


H' 


nI 


.m*:. 


o\ 


■" 


C5 




M 




Ji< 



LOSS OF RAINFALL 97 

spring wheat were placed in the moist surface soil, 
and 1 inch of dry soil added to the surface to pre- 
vent evaporation. No more water was added; the 
air of the greenhouse was kept as dry as possible. 
The wheat developed normally. The first ear was 
ripe in 132 days after planting and the last in 143 
days. The three cylinders of soil from semiarid 
western Nebraska produced 37.8 grams of straw 
and 29 ears, containing 415 kernels weighing 11.188 
grams. The three cylinders of soil from humid 
eastern Nebraska produced only 11.2 grams of straw 
and 13 ears containing 114 kernels, weighing 3 
grams. This experiment shows conclusively that 
rains are not needed during the growing season, if 
the soil is well filled with moisture at seedtime, 
to bring crops to maturity. 

What becomes of the rainfall f 

The water that falls on the land is disposed of in 
three ways: First, under ordinary conditions, a 
large portion runs off without entering the soil; 
secondly, a portion enters the soil, but remains near 
the* surface, and is rapidly evaporated back into the 
air; and, thirdly, a portion enters the lower soil 
layers, from which it is removed at later periods by 
several distinct processes. The run-off is usually 
large and is a serious loss, especially in dry-farming 
regions, where the absence of luxuriant vegetation. 



98 DRY-FARMING 

the somewhat hard, sun-baked soils, and the numer- 
ous drainage channels, formed by successive tor- 
rents, combine to furnish the rains with an easy 
escape into the torrential rivers. Persons familiar 
with arid conditions know how quickly the narrow 
box canons, which often drain thousands of square 
miles, are filled with roaring water after a compara- 
tively light rainfall. 

The run-off 

The proper cultivation of the soil diminishes very 
greatly the loss due to run-off, but even on such soils 
the proportion may often be very great. Farrel 
observed at one of the Utah stations that during a 
torrential rain — 2.6 inches in 4 hours — the surface 
of the summer fallowed plats was packed so solid 
that only one fourth inch, or less than one tenth of 
the whole amount, soaked into the soil, while on a 
neighboring stubble field, which offered greater 
hindrance to the run-off, Ij inches or about 60 per 
cent were absorbed. 

It is not possible under any condition to prevent 
the run-off altogether, although it can usually be 
reduced exceedingly. It is a common dry-farm 
custom to plow along the slopes of the farm instead 
of plowing up and down them. When this is done, 
the water which runs down the slopes is caught by 
the succession of furrows and in that way the run- 
off is diminished. During the fallow season the disk 



THE SOIL STRUCTURE 



99 



and smoothing harrows are run along the hillsides 
for the same purpose and with results that are nearly 
always advantageous to the dry-farmer. Of neces- 
sity, each man must study his own farm in order to 
devise methods that will prevent the run-off. 



The structure of soils 

Before examining more closely the possibility of 
storing water in soils a brief review of the structure 
of soils is desirable. As previously explained, soil 
is essentially a mixture of disintegrated rock and 
the decomposing remains of plants. The rock par- 
ticles which constitute the major portion of soils 
vary greatly in size. The largest ones are often 500 
times the sizes of the smallest. The following table 
shows the limits of sizes and the names used to 
designate them : — 





Names and Sizes of Soil Particles 


Name 


Diameters in 
Millimeters 


Number in One 
Lineal Inch 


Number in One Cubic Inch 


Sand 

Silt 

Clay 


0.5 -0.03 
0.03-0.001 

Below 0.001 


50-833 
833-25,000 

More than 
25,000 


125,000-578,009,537 
578,009,537- 

15,625,000,000,000 
More than 

15,625,000,000,000 



It will be observed that it would take 50 of the 
coarsest sand particles, and 25,000 of the finest silt 



100 DRY-FARMING 

particles, to form one lineal inch. The clay particles 
are often smaller and of such a nature that they can- 
not be accurately measured. The total number of 
soil particles in even a small quantity of cultivated 
soil is far beyond the ordinary limits of thought, 
ranging from 125,000 particles of coarse sand to 
15,625,000,000,000 particles of the finest silt in one 
cubic inch. In other words, if all the particles in 
one cubic inch of soil consisting of fine silt were 
placed side by side, they would form a continuous 
chain over a thousand miles long. The farmer, 
when he tills the soil, deals with countless numbers 
of individual soil grains, far surpassing the under- 
standing of the human mind. It is the immense 
number of constituent soil particles that gives to 
the soil many of its most valuable properties. 

It must be remembered that no natural soil is 
made up of particles all of which are of the same size ; 
all sizes, from the coarsest sand to the finest clay, 
are usually present (Fig. 17). These particles of all 
sizes are not arranged in the soil in a regular, orderly 
way; they are not placed side by side with geo- 
metrical regularity ; they are rather j umbled together 
in every possible way. The larger sand grains touch 
and form comparatively large interstitial spaces 
into which the finer silt and clay grains filter. Then, 
again, the clay particles, which have cementing 
properties, bind, as it were, one particle to another. 
A sand grain may have attached to it hundreds, or 



THE SOIL STRUCTURE 101 

it may be thousands, of the smaller silt grains; or 
a regiment of smaller soil grains may themselves 
be clustered into one large grain by cementing 
power of the clay. Further, in the presence of lime 
and similar substances, these complex soil grains are 
grouped into yet larger and more complex groups. 
The beneficial effect of lime is usually due to this 
power of grouping untold numbers of soil particles 
into larger groups. When by correct soil culture 
the individual soil grains are thus grouped into large 
clusters, the soil is said to be in good tilth. Any- 
thing that tends to destroy these complex soil grains, 
as, for instance, plowing the soil when it is too wet, 
weakens the crop-producing power of the soil. This 
complexity of structure is one of the chief reasons 
for the difficulty of understanding clearly the physi- 
cal laws governing soils. 

Pore-space of soils 

It follows from this description of soil structure 
that the soil grains do not fill the whole of the soil 
space. The tendency is rather to form clusters of 
soil grains which, though touching at many points, 
leave comparatively large empty spaces. This pore- 
space in soils varies greatly, but with a maximum 
of about 55 per cent. In soils formed under arid 
conditions the percentage of pore-space is some- 
where in the neighborhood of 50 per cent. There 



102 DRY-FARMING 

are some arid soils, notably gypsum soils, the par- 
ticles of which are so uniform in size that the pore- 
space is exceedingly small. Such soils are always 
difficult to prepare for agricultural purposes. 

It is the pore-space in soils that permits the stor- 
age of soil-moisture; and it is always important 
for the farmer so to maintain his soil that the pore- 
space is large enough to give him the best results, 
not only for the storage of moisture, but for the 
growth and development of roots, and for the en- 
trance into the soil of air, germ life, and other forces 
that aid in making the soil fit for the habitation of 
plants. This can always be best accomplished, as 
will be shown hereafter, by deep plowing, when the 
soil is not too wet, the exposure of the plowed soil 
to the elements, the frequent cultivation of the soil 
through the growing season, and the admixture of 
organic matter. The natural soil structure at 
depths not reached by the plow evidently cannot be 
vitally changed by the farmer. 

Hygroscopic soil-water 

Under normal conditions, a certain amount of 
water is always found in all things occurring naturally, 
soils included. Clinging to every tree, stone, or ani- 
mal tissue is a small quantity of moisture varying 
with the temperature, the amount of water in the 
air^ and with other well-known factors. It is impos- 



HYGROSCOPIC WATER IN THE SOIL 103 

sible to rid any natural substance wholly of water 
without heating it to a high temperature. This 
water which, apparently, belongs to all natural 
objects is commonly called hygroscopic water. 
Hilgard states that the soils of the arid regions con- 
tain, under a temperature of 15° C. and an atmos- 
phere saturated with water, approximately 5|- per 
cent of hygroscopic water. In fact, however, the 
air over the arid region is far from being saturated 
with water and the temperature is even higher than 
15° C, and the hygroscopic moisture actually found 
in the soils of the dry-farm territory is considerably 
smaller than the average above given. Under the 
conditions prevailing in the Great Basin the hygro- 
scopic water of soils varies from .75 per cent to 3 J per 
cent ; the average amount is not far from 1^ per cent. 
Whether or not the hygroscopic water of soils is 
of value in plant growth [is a disputed question. 
Hilgard believes that the hygroscopic moisture can 
be of considerable help in carrying plants through 
rainless summers, and further, that its presence pre- 
vents the heating of the soil particles to a point 
dangerous to plant roots. Other authorities main- 
tain earnestly that the hygroscopic soil-water is 
practically useless to plants. Considering the fact 
that wilting occurs long before the hygroscopic water 
contained in the soil is reached, it is very unlikely 
that water so held is of any real benefit to plant 
growth. 



104 



DRY-FARMING 



Gravitational water 

It often happens that a portion of the water in 
the soil is under the immediate influence of gravita- 
tion. For instance^ a stone which, normally, is 

covered with hygro- 



^ 




\ 




1 — r 




'■' \ 


p^=^ 








1 
1 

1 
1 




( 
1 j 

1 : 
1 ; 








J 









scopic water is 
dipped into water. 
The hygroscopic 
water is not thereby 
affected, but as the 
stone is drawn out 
of the water a good 
part of the water 
runs off. This is 
gravitational water. 
That is, the gravita- 
tional water of soils 
is that portion of the 
soil-water which, 
filling the soil pores, 
flows downward 
through the soil 
under the influence 
of gravity. When 
the soil pores are completely filled, the maximum 
amount of gravitational water is found there. In or- 
dinary dry-farm soils this total water capacity is be- 
tween 35 and 40 per cent of the dry weight of soil. 



i'lG. 28. Water moving downward in 
small tubes gradually becomes dis- 
tributed over the walls of the tubes as 
a capillary film. 



WATER OF GRAVITATION IN THE SOIL 105 

The gravitational soil-water cannot long remain 
in that condition ; for, necessarily, the pull of gravity 
moves it downward through the soil pores and if 
conditions are favorable, it finally reaches the stand- 
ing water-table, whence it is carried to the great 
rivers, and finally to the ocean. In humid soils, 
under a large precipitation, gravitational water moves 
down to the standing water-table after every rain. 
In dry-farm soils the gravitational water seldom 
reaches the standing water-table ; for, as it moves 
downward, it wets the soil grains and remains in the 
capillary condition as a thin film around the soil 
grains. 

To the dry-farmer, the full water capacity is of 
importance only as it pertains to the upper foot of 
soil. If, by proper plowing and cultivation, the 
upper soil be loose and porous, the precipitation is 
allowed to soak quickly into the soil, away from the 
action of the wind and sun. From this temporary 
reservoir, the water, in obedience to the pull of 
gravity, will move slowly downward to the greater 
soil depths, where it will be stored permanently 
until needed by plants. It is for this reason that 
dry-farmers find it profitable to plow in the fall, as 
soon as possible after harvesting. In fact, Camp- 
bell advocates that the harvester be followed im- 
mediately by the disk, later to be followed by the 
})low. The essential thing is to keep the topsoil 
open and receptive to a rain. 



106 DRY-FARMING 

Capillary soil-water 

The so-called capillary soil-water is of greatest 
importance to the dry-farmer. This is the water that 
clings as a film around a marble that has been dipped 
into water. There is a natural attraction between 
water and nearly all known substances, as is witnessed 
by the fact that nearly all things may be moistened. 
The water is held around the marble because the 
attraction between the marble and the water is 
greater than the pull of gravity upon the water. 
The greater the attraction, the thicker the film; 
the smaller the attraction, the thinner the film will 
be. The water that rises in a capillary glass tube 
when placed in water does so by virtue of the 
attraction between water and glass. Frequently, 
the force that makes capillary water possible is 
called surface tension (Fig. 28). 

Whenever there is a sufficient amount of water 
available, a thin film of water is found around every 
soil grain ; and where the soil grains touch, or where 
they are very near together, water is held pretty 
much as in capillary tubes. Not only are the soil 
particles enveloped by such a film, but the plant 
roots foraging in the soil are likewise covered ; that 
is, the whole system of soil grains and roots is 
covered, under favorable conditions, with a thin 
film of capillary water. It is the water in this form 
upon which plants draw during their periods of 



CAPILLARY WATER IN THE SOIL 107 

growth. The hygroscopic water and the gravita- 
tional water are of comparatively little value in 
plant growth. 

Field capacity of soils for capillary water 

The tremendously large number of soil grains 
found in even a small amount of soil makes it pos- 
sible for the soil to hold very large quantities of 
capillary water. To illustrate: In one cubic inch 
of sand soil the total surface exposed by the soil 
grains varies from 42 square inches to 27 square 
feet; in one cubic inch of silt soil, from 27 square 
feet to 72 square feet, and in one cubic inch of an 
ordinary soil the total surface exposed by the soil 
grains is about 25 square feet. This means that the 
total surface of the soil grains contained in a column 
of soil 1 square foot at the top and 10 feet deep is 
approximately 10 acres. When even a thin film 
of water is spread over such a large area, it is clear 
that the total amount of water involved must be 
large. It is to be noticed, therefore, that the fine- 
ness of the soil particles previously discussed has a 
direct bearing upon the amount of water that soils 
may retain for the use of plant growth. As the fine- 
ness of the soil grains increases, the total surface 
increases, and the water-holding capacity also 
increases. 

Naturally, the thickness of a water film held around 



108 DRY-FARMING 

the soil grains is very minute. King has calculated 
that a film 275 millionths of an inch thick, clinging 
around the soil particles, is equivalent to 14.24 per 
cent of water in a heavy clay ; 7.2 per cent in a loam ; 
5.21 per cent in a sandy loam, and 1.41 per cent in 
a sandy soil. 

It is important to know the largest amount of 
water that soils can hold in a capillary condition, 
for upon it depend, in a measure, the possibilities 
of crop production under dry-farming conditions. 
King states that the largest amount of capillary 
water that can be held in sandy loams varies from 
17.65 per cent to 10.67 per cent ; in clay loams from 
22.67 per cent to 18.16 per cent, and in humus soils 
(which are practically unknown in dry-farm sections) 
from 44.72 per cent to 21.29 per cent. These results 
were not obtained under dry-farm conditions and 
must be confirmed by investigations of arid soils. 

The water that falls upon dry-farms is very 
seldom sufficient in quantity to reach the standing 
water-table, and it is necessary, therefore, to deter- 
mine the largest percentage of water that a soil 
can hold under the influence of gravity down to a 
depth of 8 or 10 feet — the depth to which the roqts 
penetrate and in which root action is distinctly felt. 
This is somewhat difficult to determine because the 
many conflicting factors acting upon the soil-water 
are seldom in equilibrium. Moreover, a consider- 
able time must usually elapse before the rain-water 



CAPILLARY WATER IN THE SOIL 109 

is thoroughly distributed throughout the soil. For 
instance, in sandy soils, the downward descent of 
water is very rapid ; in clay soils, where the prepon- 
derance of fine particles makes minute soil pores, there 
is considerable hindrance to the descent of water, 
and it may take weeks or months for equilibrium 
to be established. It is believed that in a dry-farm 
district, where the major part of the precipitation 
comes during winter, the early springtime, before 
the spring rains come, is the best time for determin- 
ing the maximum water capacity of a soil. At that 
season the water-dissipating influences, such as sun- 
shine and high temperature, are at a minimum, and 
a sufficient time has elapsed to permit the rains of 
fall and winter to distribute themselves uniformly 
throughout the soil. In districts of high summer 
precipitation, the late fall after a fallow season will 
probably be the best time for the determination of 
the field-water capacity (Fig. 29). 

Experiments on this subject have been conducted 
at the Utah Station. As a result of several thousand 
trials it was found that, in the spring, a uniform, 
sandy loam soil of true arid properties contained, 
from year to year, an average of nearly 16^ per cent 
of water to a depth of 8 feet. This appeared to 
be practically the maximum water capacity of that 
soil under field conditions, and it may be called the 
field capacity of that soil for capillary water. Other 
experiments on dry-farms showed the field capacity 



no 



DRY-FARMING 



of a clay soil to a depth of 8 feet to be 19 per cent; 
of a clay loam, to be 18 per cent; of a loam, 17 per 
cent ; of another loam somewhat more sandy, 16 per 
cent ; of a sandy loam, 14|^ per cent, and of a very 





iiG. 29. Rainwater moving downward through soil becomes changed 
into a capillary film of water around the soil particles. 

sandy loam, 14 per cent. Leather found that in the 
calcareous arid soil of India the upper 5 feet con- 
tained 18 per cent of water at the close of the wet 
season. 

It may be concluded, therefore, that the field-water 
capacities of ordinary dry-farm soils are not very 
high, ranging from 15 to 20 per cent, with an average 
for ordinary dry-farm soils in the neighborhood of 



STORING WATER IN THE SOIL 111 

16 or 17 per cent. Expressed in another way this 
means that a layer of water from 2 to 3 inches 
deep can be stored in the soil to a depth of 12 
inches. Sandy soils will hold less water than clayey 
ones. It must not be forgotten that in the dry- 
farm region are numerous types of soils, among them 
some consisting chiefly of very fine soil grains and 
which would, consequently, possess field-water 
capacities above the average here stated. The first 
endeavor of the dry-farmer should be to have the 
soil filled to its full field-water capacity before a 
crop is planted. 

Downward movement of soil-moisture 

One of the chief considerations in a discussion of 
the storing of water in soils is the depth to which 
water may move under ordinary dry-farm conditions. 
In humid regions, where the water table is near the 
surface and where the rainfall is very abundant, 
no question has been raised concerning the possi- 
bility of the descent of water through the soil to the 
standing water. Considerable objection, however, 
has been offered to the doctrine that the rainfall 
of arid districts penetrates the soil to any great 
extent. Numerous writers on the subject intimate 
that the rainfall under dry-farm conditions reaches 
at the best the upper 3 or 4 feet of 'soil. This 
cannot be true, for the deep rich soils of the arid 



112 DRY-FARMING 

region, which never have been disturbed by the 
husbandman, are moist to very great depths. In 
the deserts of the Great Basin, where vegetation is 
very scanty, soil borings made ahnost anywhere 
will reveal the fact that moisture exists in consider- 
able quantities to the full depth of the ordinary soil 
auger, usually 10 feet. The same is true for prac- 
tically every district of the arid region. 

Such water has not come from below, for in the 
majority of cases the standing water is 50 to 500 
feet below the surface. Whitney made this obser- 
vation many years ago and reported it as a striking 
feature of agriculture in arid regions, worthy of 
serious consideration. Investigations made at the 
Utah Station have shown that undisturbed soils 
within the Great Basin frequently contain, to a 
depth of 10 feet, an amount of water equivalent to 
2 or 3 years of the rainfall which normally occurs 
in that locality. These quantities of water could 
not be found in such soils, unless, under arid condi- 
tions, water has the power to move downward to 
considerably greater depths than is usually believed 
by dry-farmers. 

In a series of irrigation experiments conducted 
at the Utah Station it was demonstrated that on 
a loam soil, within a few hours after an irrigation, 
some of the water applied had reached the eighth 
foot, or at least had increased the percentage of water 
in the eighth foot. The following statement from 



IRRIGATION WATER IN THE SOIL 



113 



these experiments shows the increase in each foot 
about eighteen hours after a small and also a larger 



irrigation : 



Water 
Applied 


Time of 
Sampling 


Percentage of Water in Soil 
(Foot Sections) 


IN Inches 


1 


2 


3 


4 


. 5 


6 


7 


8 


Aver- 
age 


2.5 


Before 
irrigation . 

After 
irrigation , 


9.57 
19.24 


10.55 
13.70 


11.78 
13.1 


12.92 
13.84 


11.92 
12.66 


11.41 
12.72 


11.75 
12.31 


11.49 
12.70 


11.43 
13.67 




Increase 


9.67 


3.15 


1.39 


0.87 


0.74 


0.31 


0.56 


1.21 


2.24 


7.5 


Before 
irrigation . 

After 
irrigation . 


10.62 
23.83 


12.44 
21.83 


14.44 
20.05 


15.11 
17.40 


14.20 

15.87 


13.40 
14.66 


13.13 
14.21 


13.27 
14.15 


13.33 
17.75 




Increase 


13.21 


9.39 


5.61 


2.29 


1.67 


1.26 


1.08 


0.88 


4.42 



It will be seen that in the soil that was already 
well filled with water, the addition of water was felt 
distinctly to the full depth of 8 feet. Moreover, 
it was observed in these experiments that even very 
small rains caused moisture changes to considerable 
depths a few hours after the rain was over. For 
instance, 0.14 of an inch of rainfall was felt to a 
depth of 2 feet within 3 hours; 0.93 of an inch 
was felt to a depth of 3 feet within the same 
period. 



114 



DRY-FARMING 



To determine whether or not the natural winter 
precipitation, upon which the crops of a large por- 
tion of the dry-farm territory depend, penetrates 
the soil to an}^ great depth a series of tests were 
undertaken. At the close of the harvest in August 
or September the soil was carefully sampled to a 
depth of 8 feet, and in the following spring sim- 
ilar samples were taken on the same soils to the same 
depth. In every case, it was found that the winter 
precipitation had caused moisture changes to the 
full depth reached by the soil auger. Moreover, 
these changes were so great as to lead the investi- 
gators to believe that moisture changes had occurred 
to greater depths. The following table shows some 
of the results obtained : — 



Date 


Percentage of Water in Each Foot of Soil 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Aver- 
age 


Sept. 8, 1902 . 
April 24. 1903 . 


6.37 7.32 
19.29 19.08 


8.17 
18.83 


8.55 
16.99 


8.26 9.29 
13.61 12.62 


10.10 
12.24 


10.38 
12.37 


8.56 
15.63 


Increase . . 


12.92 


11.76 


10.66 


8.44 


5.35 3.33 


2.14 


1.99 


7.07 


Aug. 24, 1906 . 
May 1, 1907 . 


8.33 
18.17 


7.63 
16.73 


8.42 
17.96 


9.66 
16.88 


11.30 10.75 
16.59 16.25 


9.59 
14.98 


7.93 
13.48 


9.20 
16.38 


Increase . . 


9.84 


9.10 


9.54 


7.22 


5.29 


5.50 


5.39 


5.55 


7.18 



In districts where the major part of the precipi- 
tation occurs during the summer the same law is 
undoubtedly in operation; but, since evaporation 
is most active in the summer, it is probable that a 



STORING WATER IN THE SOIL 



115 



smaller proportion reaches the greater soil depths. 
In the Great Plains district, therefore, greater care 
will have to be exercised during the summer in secur- 
ing proper water storage than in the Great Basin, 
for instance. The 



principle is, never- 
theless, the same. 
Burr, working under 
Great Plains condi- 
tions in Nebraska, 
has shown that the 
spring and summer 
rains penetrate the 
soil to the depth of 
6 feet, the average 
depth of the borings, 
and that it undoubt- 
edly affects the soil- 
moisture to the 
depth of 10 feet. 
In general, the dry- 
farmer may safely 
accept the doctrine 
that the water that 
falls upon his land 




Fig. 30. Diagram to illustrate the degree 
and depth to which the precipitation 
of fall, winter, and earliest spring is 
found in the soil at seed time. Lines 
on the left indicate the percentage of 
water in the soil in the fall; those on 
the right, the percentage of water in 
the soil in the spring at seed time. 



penetrates the soil far beyond the immediate reach 
of the sun, though not so far away that plant roots 
cannot make use of it. 



116 DRY-FARMING 

Importance of a moist subsoil 

In the consideration of the downward movement 
of soil-water it is to be noted that it is only when the 
soil is tolerably moist that the natural precipitation 
moves rapidly and freely to the deeper soil layers. 
When the soil is dry, the downward movement of 
the water is much slower and the bulk of the water 
is then stored near the surface where the loss of mois- 
ture goes on most rapidly. It has been observed 
repeatedly in the investigations at the Utah Station 
that when desert land is broken for dry-farm purposes 
and then properly cultivated, the precipitation 
penetrates farther and farther into the soil with 
every year of cultivation. For example, on a dry- 
farm, the soil of which is clay loam, and which was 
plowed in the fall of 1904 and farmed annually there- 
after, the eighth foot contained in the spring of 1905, 
6.59 per cent of moisture; in the spring of 1906, 
13.11 percent, and in the spring of 1907, 14.75 per 
cent of moisture. On another farm, with a very 
sandy soil and also plowed in the fall of 1904, there 
was found in the eighth foot in the spring of 1905, 
5.63 per cent of moisture, in the spring of 1906, 11.41 
per cent of moisture, and in the spring of 1907, 15.49 
per cent of moisture. In both of these typical cases 
it is evident that as the topsoil was loosened, the 
full field water capacity of the soil was more nearly 
approached to a greater depth. It would seem that, 



WATER IN THE SUBSOIL 



117 



as the lower soil layers are moistened, the water is 
enabled, so to speak, to slide down more easily into 
the depths of the soil. 
This is a very important principle for the dry- 




FiG. 31. Dry-farm Kubanka spring wheat, 1909. Fergus Co., Moiitaua. 
Yield, 35 bushels per acre. 

farmer to understand. It is always dangerous to 
permit the soil of a dry-farm to become very dry, 
especially below the first foot. Dry-farms should 
be so manipulated that even at the harvesting season 
a comparatively large quantity of water remains in 



118 DRY-FARMING 

the soil to a depth of 8 feet or more. The larger 
the quantity of water in the soil in the fall, the more 
readily and quickly will the water that falls on the 
land during the resting period of fall, winter, and 
early spring sink into the soil and move away from- 
the topsoil. The top or first foot will always con- 
tain the largest percentage of water because it is the 
chief receptacle of the water that falls as rain or snow, 
but when the subsoil is properly moist, the water 
will more completely leave the topsoil. Further, 
crops planted on a soil saturated with water to a 
depth of 8 feet are almost certain to mature and 
yield well. 

If the field-water capacity has not been filled, 
there is always the danger that an unusually dry 
season or a series of hot winds or other like circum- 
stances may either seriously injure the crop or cause 
a complete failure. The dry-farmer should keep a 
surplus of moisture in the soil to be carried over 
from year to year, just as the wise business man 
maintains a sufficient working capital for the needs 
of his business. In fact, it is often safe to advise 
the prospective dry-farmer to plow his newly cleared 
or broken land carefully and then to grow no crop 
on it the first year, so that, when crop production 
begins, the soil will have stored in it an amount of 
water sufficient to carry a crop over periods of drouth. 
Especially in districts of very low rainfall is this 
practice to be recommended. In the Great Plains 



STORING RAINFALL IN THE SOIL 119 

area, where the summer rains tempt the farmer to 
give less attention to the soil-moisture problem than 
in the dry districts with winter precipitation, farther 
West, it is important that a fallow season be occa- 
sionally given the land to prevent the store of soil 
moisture from becoming dangerously low. 

To what extent is the rainfall stored in soils f 

What proportion of the actual amount of water 
falling upon the soil can be stored in the soil and 
carried over from season to season? This question 
naturally arises in view of the conclusion that water 
penetrates the soil to considerable depths. There 
is comparatively little available information with 
which to answer this question, because the great 
majority of students of soil moisture have concerned 
themselves wholly with the upper two, three, or four 
feet of soil. The results of such investigations are 
practically useless in answering this question. In 
humid regions it may be very satisfactory to confine 
soil-moisture investigations to the upper few feet; 
but in arid regions, where dry-farming is a living 
question, such a method leads to erroneous or in- 
complete conclusions. 

Since the average field capacity of soils for water 
is about 2.5 inches per foot, it follows that it is pos- 
sible to store 25 inches of water in 10 feet of soil. 
This is from two to one and a half times one year's 



120 DRY-FARMING 

rainfall over the better dry- farming sections. The- 
oretically, therefore, there is no reason why the rain- 
fall of one season or more could not be stored in the 
soil. Careful investigations have borne out this 
theory. Atkinson found, for example, at the Mon- 
tana Station, that soil, which to a depth of 9 feet 
contained 7.7 per cent of moisture in the fall con- 
tained 11.5 per cent in the spring and, after carrying 
it through the summer by proper methods of culti- 
vation, 11 per cent. 

It may certainly be concluded from this experi- 
ment that it is possible to carry over the soil 
moisture from season to season. The elaborate in- 
vestigations at the Utah Station have demonstrated 
that the winter precipitation, that is, the precipi- 
tation that comes during the wettest period of the 
year, may be retained in a large measure in the soil. 
Naturally, the amount of the natural precipitation 
accounted for in the upper eight feet will depend 
upon the dryness of the soil at the time the investi- 
gation commenced. If at the beginning of the wet 
season the upper eight feet of soil are fairly well 
stored with moisture, the precipitation will move 
down to even greater depths, beyond the reach of 
the soil auger. If, on the other hand, the soil is 
comparatively dry at the beginning of the season, 
the natural precipitation will distribute itself through 
the upper few feet, and thus be readily measured 
by the soil auger. 



STORING RAINFALL IN THE SOIL 



121 



In the Utah investigations it was found that of the 
water which fell as rain and snow during the winter, 
as high as 95 1 per cent was found stored in the first 
eight feet of soil at the beginning of the growing 
season. Naturally, much smaller percentages were 
also found, but on an average, in soils somewhat 
dry at the beginning of the dry season, more than 
three fourths of the natural precipitation was found 
stored in the soil in the spring. The following table 
shows some of these summary results : — 

Proportion of Rainfall Stored in the Soil 









Percent of 






Percent 




precipita- 






of water 


Rainfall 


tion 




Period 


in soil in 


during 


found in 


Soil 




fall 


period 


the spring 




(Depth 


(Inches) 


(To a 






of 8 ft.) 




depth of 

8 ft.) 




Sept. 12, 1902-April 16, 1903 . . 


8.78 


8.51 


87.59 


Sandy Loam 


Aug. 23, 1904-ApriI 22, 1905 






7.87 


7.94 


95.56 


Sandy Loam 


Sept. 8, 1905-April 28, 1906 






8.83 


12.14 


82.61 


Sandy Loam 


Oct. 8, 1906-April 29, 1907 






9.10 


16.17 


62.77 


Sandy Loam 


Sept. 14, 1907-April 23, 1908 






11.03 


6.38 


67.55 


Sandy Loam 


July 27, 1904-April 15, 1905 






12.34 


10.51 


93.17 


Clay 


Aug. 8, 1904-April 5, 1905 






7.73 


7.27 


64.80 


Sand 


July 28, 1905-May 7, 1906 






11.04 


10.65 


81.13 


Loam 



While the results exhibited in the above table were 
all obtained in a locality where the bulk of the 
precipitation comes in the winter, yet similar results 
would undoubtedly be obtained where the precipi- 
tation occurs mainly in the summer. The storage 
of water in the soil cannot be a whit less important 
on the Great Plains than in the Great Basin. In 



122 DRY-FARMING 

fact, Burr has clearly demonstrated for western 
Nebraska that over 50 per cent of the rainfall of the 
spring and summer may be stored in the soil to the 
depth of six feet. Without question, some is stored 
also at greater depths. 

All the evidence at hand shows that a large portion 
of the precipitation falling upon properly prepared 
soil, whether it be in summer or winter, is stored in 
the soil until evaporation is allowed to withdraw it. 
Whether or not water so stored may be made to 
remain in the soil throughout the season or the year 
will be discussed in the next chapter. It must be 
said, however, that the possibility of storing water 
in the soil, that is, making the water descend to 
relatively great soil depths away from the immediate 
and direct action of the sunshine and winds, is the 
most fundamental principle in successful dry-farm- 
ing. 

The fallow 

It may be safely concluded that a large portion of 
the water that falls as rain or snow may be stored 
in the soil to considerable depths (eight feet or more). 
However, the question remains. Is it possible to 
store the rainfall of successive years in the soil for 
the use of one crop? In short. Does the practice 
of clean fallowing or resting the ground with proper 
cultivation for one season enable the farmer to store 
in the soil the larger portion of the rainfall of two 



SUMMER FALLOW 123 

years, to be used for one crop ? It is unquestionably 
true, as will be shown later, that clean fallowing or 
^^ summer tillage" is one of the oldest and safest 
practices of dr3^-farming as practiced in the West, 
but it is not generally understood why fallowing is 
desirable. 

Considerable doubt has recently been cast upon 
the doctrine that one of the beneficial effects of fallow- 
ing in dry-farming is to store the rainfall of succes- 
sive seasons in the soil for the use of one crop. Since 
it has been shown that a large proportion of the 
winter precipitation can be stored in the soil during 
the wet season, it merely becomes a question of the 
possibility of preventing the evaporation of this 
water during the drier season. As will be shown 
in the next chapter, this can well be effected by 
proper cultivation. 

There is no good reason, therefore, for believing 
that the precipitation of successive seasons may not 
be added to water already stored in the soil. King 
has shown that fallowing the soil one year carried 
over per square foot, in the upper four feet, 9.38 
pounds of water more than was found in a cropped 
soil in a parallel experiment; and, moreover, the 
beneficial effect of this water advantage was felt 
for a whole succeeding season. King concludes, 
therefore, that one of the advantages of fallowing 
is to increase the moisture content of the soil. The 
Utah experiments show that the tendency of fallow- 



124 DRY-FARMING 

ing is always to increase the soil-moisture content. 
In dry-farming, water is the critical factor, and any 
practice that helps to conserve water should be 
adopted. For that reason, fallowing, which gathers 
soil-moisture, should be strongly advocated. In 
Chapter IX another important value of the fallow 
will be discussed. 

In view of the discussion in this chapter it is easily 
understood why students of soil-moisture have not 
found a material increase in soil-moisture due to 
fallowing. Usually such investigations have been 
made to shallow depths which already were fairly 
well filled with moisture. Water falling upon such 
soils would sink beyond the depth reached by the 
soil augers, and it became impossible to judge 
accurately of the moisture-storing advantage of the 
fallow. A critical analysis of the literature on this 
subject will reveal the weakness of most experiments 
in this respect. 

It may be mentioned here that the only fallow 
that should be practiced by the dry-farmer is the 
clean fallow. Water storage is manifestly impos- 
sible when crops are growing upon a soil. A healthy 
crop of sagebrush, sunflowers, or other weeds con- 
sumes as much water as a first-class stand of corn, 
wheat, or potatoes. Weeds should be abhorred by 
the farmer. A weedy fallow is a sure forerunner of 
a crop failure. How to maintain a good fallow is 
discussed in Chapter VIII, under the head of Culti- 



STORING WATER BY DEEP PLOWING 125 

vation. Moreover, the practice of fallowing should 
be varied with the climatic conditions. In districts 
of low rainfall, 10-15 inches, the land should be clean 
summer-fallowed every other year; under very low 
rainfall perhaps even two out of three years; in 
districts of more abundant rainfall, 15-20 inches, 
perhaps one year out of every three or four is suffi- 
cient. Where the precipitation comes during the 
growing season, as in the Great Plains area, fallowing 
for the storage of water is less important than where 
the major part of the rainfall comes during the fall 
and winter. However, any system of dry-farming 
that omits fallowing wholly from its practices is 
in danger of failure in dry years. 

Deep 'plowing for water storage 

It has been attempted in this chapter to demon- 
strate that water falling upon a soil may descend to 
great depths, and may be stored in the soil from year 
to year, subject to the needs of the crop that may be 
planted. By what cultural treatment may this 
downward descent of the water be accelerated by the 
farmer? First and foremost, by plowing at the 
right time and to the right depth. Plowing should 
be done deeply and thoroughly so that the falling 
water may immediately be drawn down to the full 
depth of the loose, spongy, plowed soil, away from 
the action of the sunshine or winds. The moisture 



126 DRY-FARMING 

thus caught will slowly work its way down into the 
lower layers of the soil. Deep plowing is always to 
be recommended for successful dry-farming. 

In humid districts where there is a great difference 
between the soil and the subsoil, it is often dangerous 
to turn up the lifeless subsoil, but in arid districts 
where there is no real differentiation between the 
soil andHhe subsoil, deep plowing may safely be rec- 
ommended. True, occasionally, soils are found in 
the dry-farm territory which are underlaid near the 
surface by an inert clay or infertile layer of lime or 
gypsum which forbids the farmer putting the plow 
too deeply into the soil. Such soils, however, are 
seldom worth while trying for dry-farm purposes. 
Deep plowing must be practiced for the best dry- 
farming results. 

It naturally follows that subsoiling should be a 
beneficial practice on dry-farms. Whether or not 
the great cost of subsoiling is offset by the resulting 
increased yields is an open question; it is, in fact, 
quite doubtful. Deep plowing done at the right time 
and frequently enough is possibly sufficient. By 
deep plowing is meant stirring or turning the soil 
to a depth of six to ten inches, below the surface of 
the land. 

Fall plowing for water storage 

It is not alone sufficient to plow and to plow 
deeply ; it is also necessary that the plowing be done 



STORING WATER BY FADL PLOWING 127 

at the right time. In the very great majority of 
cases over the whole dry-farm territory, plowing 
should be done in the fall. There are three reasons 
for this: First, after the crop is harvested, the soil 
should be stirred immediately, so that it can be 
exposed to the full action of the weathering agencies, 
whether the winters be open or closed. If for any 
reason plowing cannot be done early it is often advan- 
tageous to follow the harvester with a disk and to 
plow later when convenient. The chemical effect on 
the soil resulting from the weathering, made possible 
by fall plowing, as will be shown in Chapter IX, 
is of itself so great as to warrant the teaching of 
the general practice of fall plowing. Secondly, the 
early stirring of the soil prevents evaporation of the 
moisture in the soil during late summer and the fall. 
Thirdly, in the parts of the dry-farm territory where 
much precipitation occurs in the fall, winter, or early 
spring, fall plowing permits mut^h of this precipita- 
tion to enter the soil and be stored there until 
needed by plants. 

A number of experiment stations have compared 
plowing done in the early fall with plowing done 
late in the fall or in the spring, and with almost 
no exception it has been found that early fall plowing 
is water-conserving and in other ways advantageous. 
It was observed on a Utah dry-farm that the fall- 
plowed land contained, to a depth of 10 feet, 7.47 
acre-inches more water than the adjoining spring- 



128 DRY-FARMING 

plowed land — a saving of nearly one half of a year's 
precipitation. The ground should be plowed in the 
early fall as soon as possible after the crop is har- 
vested. It should then be left in the rough through- 
out the winter, so that it may be mellowed and broken 
down by the elements. The rough land further has 
a tendency to catch and hold the snow that may 
be blown by the wind, thus insuring a more even 
distribution of the water from the melting snow. 

A common objection to fall plowing is that the 
ground is so dry in the fall that it does not plow up 
well, and that the great dry clods of earth do much 
to injure the physical condition of the soil. It is 
very doubtful if such an objection is generally valid, 
especially if the soil is so cropped as to leave a fair 
margin of moisture in the soil at harvest time. The 
atmospheric agencies will usually break down the 
clods, and the physical result of the treatment will 
be beneficial. Undoubtedly, the fall plowing of 
dry land is somewhat difficult, but the good results 
more than pay the farmer for his trouble. Late 
fall plowing, after the fall rains have softened the 
land, is preferable to spring plowing. If for any 
reason the farmer feels that he must practice spring 
plowing, he should do it as early as possible in the 
spring. Of course, it is inadvisable to plow the soil 
when it is so wet as to injure its tilth seriously, but 
as soon as that danger period has passed, the plow 
should be placed in the ground. The moisture in 



WATER STORING AND PLOWING 129 

the soil will thereby be conserved, and whatever 
water may fall during the spring months will be con- 
served also. This is of especial importance in the 
Great Plains region and in any district where the 
precipitation comes in the spring and winter months. 

Likewise, after fall plowing, the land must be well 
stirred in the early spring with the disk harrow or a 
similar implement, to enable the spring rains to enter 
the soil easily and to prevent the evaporation of the 
water already stored. Where the rainfall is quite 
abundant and the plowed land has been beaten down 
by the frequent rains, the land should be plowed 
again in the spring. Where such conditions do not 
exist, the treatment of the soil with the disk and har- 
row in the spring is usually sufficient. 

In recent dry-farm experience it has been fairly 
completely demonstrated that, providing the soil is 
well stored with water, crops will mature even if no 
rain falls during the growing season. Naturally, 
under most circumstances, any rains that may fall 
on a well-prepared soil during the season of crop 
growth will tend to increase the crop yield, but some 
profitable yield is assured, in spite of the season, 
if the soil is well stored with water at seed time. 
This is an important principle in the system of dry- 
farming. 



CHAPTER VIII 

REGULATING THE EVAPORATION 

The demonstration in the last chapter that the 
water which falls as rain or snow may be stored in 
the soil for the use of plants is of first importance in 
dry-farming, for it makes the farmer independent, 
in a large measure, of the distribution of the rainfall. 
The dry-farmer who goes into the summer with a 
soil well stored with water cares little whether sum- 
mer rains come or not, for he knows that his crops will 
mature in spite of external drouth. In fact, as will 
be shown later, in many dry-farm sections where 
the summer rains are light they are a positive detri- 
ment to the farmer who by careful farming has 
stored his deep soil with an abundance of water. 
Storing the soil with water is, however, only the first 
step in making the rains of fall, winter, or the preced- 
ing year available for plant growth. As soon as 
warm growing weather comes, water-dissipating 
forces come into play, and water is lost by evapora- 
tion. The farmer must, therefore, use all precau- 
tions to keep the moisture in the soil until such time 
as the roots of the crop may draw it into the plants 
to be used in plant production. That is, as far as 

130 



AMOUNT OF EVAPORATION 



131 



sTION^ 

ITROMl 



possible, direct evaporation of water from the soil 
must be prevented. 

Few farmers really realize the immense possible 
annual evaporation in the dry-farm territory. It is 
always much larger than the total annual rainfall. 
In fact, an arid region may be defined as one in which 
under natural conditions several times more water 
evaporates annually from a free water surface than 
falls as rain and snow. For that reason many stu- 
dents of aridity pay little attention to temperature, 
relative humidity, or winds, and simply measure the 
evaporation from a free water surface in 
the locality in question. In order to ob- 
tain a measure of the aridity, MacDougal 
has constructed the following table, show- 
ing the annual precipitation and the an- 
nual evaporation at several well-known 
localities in the dry-farm territory. 

True, the localities included in the fol- 
lowing table are extreme, but they 
illustrate the large possible evap- 
oration, ranging from about six to 
thirty-five times the precipitation. 
(See Fig. 32.) At the same time 
it must be borne in mind that 
while such rates of evaporation 
may occur from free water sur- 
faces, the evaporation from agricultural soils under 
like conditions is very much smaller. 



RAINFALLl 



WATER! 



SURFACE 



Fig. 32. Annual rain- 
fall and evaporation 
in arid region com- 
pared. The high evap- 
oration rate makes 
necessary thorough 
farming. 



132 



DRY-FARMING 



Place 



El Paso, Texas .... 
Fort Wingate, New Mexico 
Fort Yuma, Arizona 
Phoenix, Arizona 
Tucson, Arizona 
Mohave, Cahfornia 
Hawthorne, Nevada 
Winnemucca, Nevada 
St. George, Utah 
Fort Duchesne, Utah 
Pineville, Oregon 
Lost River, Idaho . 
Laramie, Wyoming 
Torres, Mexico . . 



Annual 


Annual 


Precipita- 


Evapora- 


tion 


tion 


(Inches) 


(Inches) 


9.23 


80 


14.00 


80 


2.84 


100 


7.06 


90 


11.74 


90 


4.97 


95 


4.50 


80 


8.51 


80 


6.46 


90 


6.49 


75 


9.01 


70 


8.47 


70 


9.81 


70 


16.97 


100 



Ratio 



8.7 

5.7 

35.2 

12.7 

7.7 

19.1 

17.5 

9.6 

13.9 

11.6 

7.8 

8.3 

7.1 

6.0 



To understand the methods employed for check- 
ing evaporation from the soil, it is necessary to review 
briefly the conditions that determine the evapora- 
tion of water into the air, and the manner in which 
water moves in the soil. 



The formation of water vapor 

Whenever water is left freely exposed to the air, 
it evaporates; that is, it passes into the gaseous 
state and mixes with the gases of the air. Even 
snow and ice give off water vapor, though in very 
small quantities. The quantity of water vapor 



THE EVAPORATION OF WATER 133 

which can enter a given volume of air is definitely 
limited. For instance, at the temperature of freez- 
ing water 2.126 grains of water vapor can enter 
one cubic foot of air, but no more. When air con- 
tains all the water possible, it is said to be saturated, 
and evaporation then ceases. The practical effect 
of this is the well-known experience that on the sea- 
shore, where the air is often very nearly fully sat- 
urated with water vapor, the drying of clothes goes 
on very slowly, whereas in the interior, like the dry- 
farming territory, away from the ocean, where the 
air is far from being saturated, drying goes on very 
rapidly. 

The amount of water necessary to saturate air 
varies greatly with the temperature, as may be seen 
from the table on page 134. 

It is to be noted that as the temperature increases, 
the amount of water that may be held by the air 
also increases; and proportionately more rapidly 
than the increase in temperature. This is generally 
well understood in common experience, as in drying 
clothes rapidly by hanging them before a hot fire. 
At a temperature of 100° F., which is often reached 
in portions of the dry-farm territory during the 
growing season, a given volume of air can hold more 
than nine times as much water vapor as at the tem- 
perature of freezing water. This is an exceedingly 
important principle in dry-farm practices, for it 
explains the relatively easy possibility of storing 



134 



DRY-FARMING 



Temperature 

Fahrenheit 

(Degrees) 


Weight of Water Vapor 

that can be held in 

One Cubic Foot of Air 

(In Grains) 


Difference 



32 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 


0.545 
2.126 j^ 

2.862 ! 

4.089 1 

5.756 1 

7.992 j 

10.949 1 

14.810 1 

19.790 S 


0.736 

1.227 

1.667 

2.236 

2.957 

3.861 

...... 4.980 



water during the fall and winter when the tempera- 
ture is low and the moisture usually abundant, and 
the greater difficulty of storing the rain that falls 
largely, as in the Great Plains area, in the summer, 
when water-dissipating forces are very active. This 
law also emphasizes the truth that it is in times of 
warm weather that every precaution must be taken 
to prevent the evaporation of water from the soil 
surface. 

It is of course well understood that the atmos- 
phere as a whole is never saturated with water vapor. 



TEMPERATURE AND EVAPORATION 135 

Such saturation is at the best only local, as, for in- 
stance, on the seashore during quiet days, when the 
layer of air over the water may be fully saturated, 
or in a field containing much water from which, on 
quiet warm days, enough water may evaporate to 
saturate the layer of air immediately upon the soil 
and around the plants. Whenever, in such cases, 
the air begins to move and the wind blows, the 
saturated air is mixed with the larger portion of 
unsaturated air, and evaporation is again increased. 
Meanwhile, it must be borne in mind that into a layer 
of saturated air resting upon a field of growing plants 
very little water evaporates, and that the chief water- 
dissipating power of winds lies in the removal of this 
saturated layer. Winds or air movements of any 
kind, therefore, become enemies of the farmer who 
depends upon a limited rainfall. 

The amount of water actually found in a given 
volume of air at a certain temperature, compared 
with the largest amount it can hold, is called the rela- 
tive humidity of the air. As shown in Chapter IV, 
the relative humidity becomes smaller as the rainfall 
decreases. The lower the relative humidity is at 
a given temperature, the more rapidly will water 
evaporate into the air. There is no more striking 
confirmation of this law than the fact that at a tem- 
perature of 90° sunstrokes and similar ailments are 
reported in great number from New York, while 
the people of Salt Lake City are perfectly comfort- 



136 DRY-FARMING 

able. In New York the relative humidity in sum- 
mer is about 73 per cent; in Salt Lake City, about 
35 per cent. At a high summer temperature evapora- 
tion from the skin goes on slowly in New York and 
rapidly in Salt Lake City, with the resulting discom- 
fort or comfort. Similarly, evaporation from soils 
goes on rapidly under a low and slowly under a high 
percentage of relative humidity. 

Evaporation from water surfaces is hastened, there- 
fore, by (1) an increase in the temperature, (2) an 
increase in the air movements or winds, and (3) a 
decrease in the relative humidity. The tempera- 
ture is higher ; the relative humidity lower, and the 
winds usually more abundant in arid than in humid 
regions. The dry-farmer must consequently use all 
possible precautions to prevent evaporation from the 
soil. 

Conditions of evaporation from soils 

Evaporation does not alone occur from a surface 
of free water. All wet or moist substances lose by 
evaporation most of the water that they hold, pro- 
viding the conditions of temperature and relative 
humidity are favorable. Thus, from a wet soil, 
evaporation is continually removing water. Yet, 
under ordinary conditions, it is impossible to remove 
all the water, for a small quantity is attracted so 
strongly by the soil particles that only a tempera- 
ture above the boiling point of water will drive it 



EVAPORATION FROM SOILS 137 

out. This part of the soil is the hygroscopic moisture 
spoken of in the last chapter. 

Moreover, it must be kept in mind that evapora- 
tion does not occur as rapidly from wet soil as from 
a water surface, unless all the soil pores are so 
completely filled with water that the soil surface 
is practically a water surface. The reason for this 
reduced evaporation from a wet soil is almost self- 
evident. There is a comparatively strong attraction 
between soil and water, which enables the moisture 
to cling as a thin capillary film around the soil par- 
ticles, against the force of gravity. Ordinarily, 
only capillary water is found in well-tilled soil, and 
the force causing evaporation must be strong enough 
to overcome this attraction besides changing the 
water into vapor. 

The less water there is in a soil, the thinner the 
water film, and the more firmly is the water held. 
Hence, the rate of evaporation decreases with the 
decrease in soil-moisture. This law is confirmed by 
actual field tests. For instance, as an average of 
274 trials made at the Utah Station, it was found that 
three soils, otherwise alike, that contained, respec- 
tively, 22.63 per cent, 17.14 per cent, and 12.75 per 
cent of water lost in two weeks, to a depth of eight 
feet, respectively 21.0, 17.1, and 10.0 pounds of water 
per square foot. Similar experiments conducted 
elsewhere also furnish proof of the correctness of 
this principle. From this point of view the dry- 



138 DRY-FARMING 

farmer does not want his soils to be unnecessarily 
moist. The dry-farmer can reduce the per cent of 
water in the soil without diminishing the total amount 
of water by so treating the soil that the water will 
distribute itself to considerable depths. This brings 
into prominence again the practices of fall plowing, 
deep plowing, subsoiling, and the choice of deep soils 
for dry-farming. 

Very much for the same reasons, evaporation goes 
on more slowly from water in which salt or other 
substances have been dissolved. The attraction 
between th'e water and the dissolved salt seems to 
be strong enough to resist partially the force causing 
evaporation. Soil-water always contains some of 
the soil ingredients in solut on, and consequently 
under the given conditions evaporation occurs more 
slowly from soil-water than from pure water. Now, 
the more fertile a soil is, that is, the more soluble 
plant-food it contains, the more material will be 
dissolved in the soil-water, and as a result the more 
slowly will evaporation take place. Fallowing, 
cultivation, thorough plowing and manuring, which 
increase the store of soluble plant-food, all tend to 
diminish evaporation. While these conditions may 
have little value in the eyes of the armer who is 
under an abundant rainfall, they are of great impor- 
tance to the dry-farmer. It is only by utilizing every 
possibility of conserving water and fertility that dry- 
farming may be made a perfectly safe practice. 



REGION OF EVAPORATION 139 

Loss by evaporation chiefly at the surface 

Evaporation goes on from every wet substance. 
Water evaporates therefore from the wet soil grains 
under the surface as well as from those at the sur- 
face. In developing a system of practice which will 
reduce evaporation to a minimum it must be learned, 
whether the water which evaporates from the soil 
particles far below the surface is carried in large 
quantities into the atmosphere and thus lost to plant 
use. Over forty years ago, Nessler subjected this 
question to experiment and found that the loss by 
evaporation occurs almost wholly at the soil surface, 
and that very little if any is lost directly by evapora- 
tion from the lower soil layers. Other experimenters 
have confirmed this conclusion, and very recently 
Buckingham, examining the same subject, found 
that while there is a very slow upward movement 
of the soil gases into the atmosphere, the total quan- 
tity of the water thus lost by direct evaporation from 
soil, a foot below the surface, amounted at most to 
one inch of rainfall in six years. This is insignificant 
even under semiarid and arid conditions. How- 
ever, the rate of loss of water by direct evaporation 
from the lower soil layers increases with the porosity 
of the soil, that is, with the space not filled with soil 
particles or water. Fine-grained soils, therefore, 
lose the least water in this manner. Nevertheless, 
if coarse-grained soils are well filled with water, 



140 DRY-FARMING 

by deep fall plowing and by proper summer fallowing 
for the conservation of moisture, the loss of moisture 
by direct evaporation from the lower soil layers 
need not be larger than from finer grained soils. 

Thus again are emphasized the principles previously 
laid down that, for the most successful dry-farming, 
the soil should always be kept well filled with mois- 
ture, even if it means that the land, after being broken, 
must lie fallow for one or two seasons, until a suffi- 
cient amount of moisture has accumulated. Further, 
the correlative principle is emphasized that the mois- 
ture in dry-farm lands should be stored deeply, away 
from the immediate action of the sun's rays upon the 
land surface. The necessity for deep soils is thus 
again brought out. 

The great loss of soil moisture due to an accumu- 
lation of water in the upper twelve inches is well 
brought out in the experiments conducted by the 
Utah Station. The following is selected from the 
numerous data on the subject. Two soils, almost 
identical in character, contained respectively 17.57 
per cent and 16.55 per cent of water on an average 
to a depth of eight feet ; that is, the total amount of 
water held by the two soils was practically identical. 
Owing to varying cultural treatment, the distribu- 
tion of the water in the soil was not uniform; one 
contained 23.22 per cent and the other 16.64 per 
cent of water in the first twelve inches. During 
the first seven days the soil that contained the 



EVAPORATION AT THE SURFACE 141 

highest percentage of water in the first foot lost 
13.30 pounds of water, while the other lost only 8.48 
pounds per square foot. This great difference was 
due no doubt to the fact that direct evaporation 
takes place in considerable quantity only in the upper 
twelve inches of soil, where the sun's heat has a 
full chance to act. 

Any practice which enables the rains to sink 
quickly to considerable depths should be adopted 
by the dry-farmer. This is perhaps one of the great 
reasons for advocating the expensive but usually 
effective subsoil plowing on dry-farms. It is a very 
common experience, in the arid region, that great, 
deep cracks form during hot weather. From the 
walls of these cracks evaporation goes on, as from 
the topsoil, and the passing winds renew the air so 
that the evaporation may go on rapidly. (See Fig. 
33.) The dry-farmer must go over the land as often 
as needs be with some implement that will destroy 
and fill up the cracks that may have been formed. 
In a field of growing crops this is often difficult to 
do; but it is not impossible that hand hoeing, ex- 
pensive as it is, would pay well in the saving of soil 
moisture and the consequent increase in crop yield. 

How soil water reaches the surface 

It may be accepted as an established truth that 
the direct evaporation of water from wet soils occurs 



142 



DRY-FARMING 




Fig. 33. Many soils check badly. The cracks cause a loss of soil mois- 
ture. Arid soils (this picture represents a heavy clay as depicted by 
Lyon and Fippii^) often crack extensively. Cultivation will prevent 
the loss of soil-moisture. 



almost wholly at the surface. Yet it is well known 
that evaporation from the soil surface may continue 
until the soil-moisture to a depth of eight or ten 



CAPILLARY ACTION 



143 



feet or more is depleted. This is shown l^y the 
following analyses of dry-farm soil in early spring 
and midsummer. No attempt was made to conserve 
the moisture in the soil : — 



Per cent of water in 


l.st 
foot 


2d 
foot 


3d 
foot 

19.62 
11.03 


4th 
foot 


5th 
foot 


6th 
foot 


7th 
foot 


8th 
foot 


Average 


Early Spring . . 
Midsummer . . 


20.84 

8.83 


20.06 

8.87 


18.28 
9.59 


18.70 
11.27 


14.29 
11.03 


14.48 
8.95 


13.83 
9.47 


17.51 

9.88 



In this case water had undoubtedly passed by 
capillary movement from the depth of eight feet 
to a point near the surface where direct evaporation 
could occur. As explained in the last chapter, 
water which is held as a film around the soil particles 
is called capillary water; and it is in the capillary 
form that water may be stored in dry-farm soils. 
Moreover, it is the capillary soil-moisture alone which 
is of real value in crop production. This capillary 
water tends to distribute itself uniformly throughout 
the soil, in accordance with the prevailing conditions 
and forces. If no water is removed from the soil, 
in course of time the distribution of the soil-water 
will be such that the thickness of the film at any point 
in the soil mass is a direct resultant of the various 
forces acting at that particular point. There will 
then be no appreciable movement of the soil-mois- 
ture. Such a condition is approximated in late 
winter or early spring before planting begins. The 



144 DRY-FARMING 

distribution of water under such conditions is seen 
in the table on page 114 of the last chapter. During 
the greater part of the year, however, no such quies- 
cent state can occur, for there are numerous dis- 
turbing elements that normally are active, among 
which the three most effective are (1) the addition 
of water to the soil by rains ; (2) the evaporation of 
water from the topsoil, due to the more active meteor- 
ological factors during spring, summer, and fall ; and 
(3) the abstraction of water from the soil by plant 
roots. 

Water, entering the soil, moves downward under 
the influence of gravity as gravitational water, until 
ufider the attractive influence of the soil it has been 
converted into capillary water and adheres to the 
soil particles as a film. If the soil were dry, and the 
film therefore thin, the rain water would move down- 
ward only a short distance as gravitational water; 
if the soil w^ere wet, and the film therefore thick, 
the water would move down to a greater distance 
before being exhausted. If, as is often the case in 
humid districts, the soil is saturated, that is, the 
film is as thick as the particles can hold, the water 
would pass right through the soil and connect with 
the standing water below. This, of course, is sel- 
dom the case in dry-farm districts. In any soil, 
excepting one already saturated, the addition of 
water will produce a thickening of the soil-water 
film to the full descent of the w^ater. This imme- 



MOVEMENT OF SOIL-MOISTURE 145 

diately destroys the conditions of equilibrium formerly 
existing, for the moisture is not now uniformly dis- 
tributed. Consequently a process of redistribution 
begins which continues until the nearest approach 
to equilibrium is restored. In this process water 
will pass in every direction from the wet portion of 
the soil to the drier; it does not necessarily mean that 
water will actually pass from the wet portion to the 
drier portion; usually, at the driest point a little 
water is drawn from the adjoining point, which in 
turn draws from the next, and that from the next, 
until the redistribution is complete. The process 
is very much like stuffing wool into a sack which 
already is loosely filled. The new wool does not 
reach the bottom of the sack, yet there is more wool 
in the bottom than there was before. 

If a plant-root is actively feeding some distance 
under the soil surface, the reverse process occurs. 
At the feeding point the root continually abstracts 
water from the soil grains and thus makes the film 
thinner in that locality. This causes a movement 
of moisture similar to the one above described, from 
the wetter portions of the soil to the portion being 
dried out by the action of the plant-root. Soil many 
feet or even rods distant may assist in supplying 
such an active root with moisture. When the thou- 
sands of tiny roots sent out by each plant are re- 
called, it may well be understood what a confusion 
of pulls and counter-pulls upon the soil-moisture 



146 DRY-P^ARMING 

exists in any cultivated soil. In fact, the soil-water 
film may be viewed as being in a state of trembling 
activity, tending to place itself in full equilibrium 
with the surrounding contending forces which, them- 
selves, constantly change. Were it not that the 
water film held closely around the soil particles is 
possessed of extreme mobility, it would not be 
possible to meet the demands of the plants upon 
the water at comparatively great distances. Even 
as it is, it frequently happens that when crops are 
planted too thickly on dry-farms, the soil-moisture 
cannot move quickly enough to the absorbing 
roots to maintain plant growth, and crop failure 
results. Incidentally, this points to planting that 
shall be proportional to the moisture contained by 
the soil. See Chapter XI. 

As the temperature rises in spring, with a decrease 
in the relative humidity, and an increase in direct 
sunshine, evaporation from the soil surface increases 
greatly. However, as the topsoil becomes drier, 
that is, as the water film becomes thinner, there is 
an attempt at readjustment, and water moves up- 
ward to take the place of that lost by evaporation. 
As this continues throughout the season, the moisture 
stored eight or ten feet or more below the surface 
is gradually brought to the top and evaporated, and 
thus lost to plant use. 



HOW SOILS DRY OUT 147 

The effect of rapid top drying of soils 

As the water held by soils diminishes, and the 
water film around the soil grains becomes thinner, 
the capillary movement of the soil-water is retarded. 
This is easily understood by recalling that the soil 
particles have an attraction for water, which is of 
definite value, and may be measured by the thickest 
film that may be held against gravity. When the 
film is thinned, it does not diminish the attraction 
of the soil for water ; it simply results in a stronger 
pull upon the water and a firmer holding of the film 
against the surfaces of the soil grains. To move 
soil-water under such conditions requires the expen- 
diture of more energy than is necessary for moving 
water in a saturated or nearly saturated soil. Under 
like conditions, therefore, the thinner the soil-water 
film the more difficult will be the upward movement 
of the soil-water and the slower the evaporation from 
the topsoil. 

As drying goes on, a point is reached at which the 
capillary movement of the water wholly ceases. 
This is probably when little more than the hygro- 
scopic moisture remains. In fact, very dry soil 
and water repel each other. This is shown in the 
common experience of driving along a road in sum- 
mer, immediately after a light shower. The masses 
of dust are wetted only on the outside, and as the 
wheels pass through them the dry dust is revealed. 



148 DRY-FARMING 

It is an important fact that very dry soil furnishes 
a very effective protection against the capillary 
movement of water. 

In accordance with the principle above established, 
if the surface soil could be dried to the point where 
capillarity is very slow, the evaporation would be 
diminished or almost wholly stopped. More than a 
quarter of a century ago, Eser showed experimentally 
that soil-water may be saved by drying the surface 
soil rapidly. Under dry -farm conditions it frequently 
occurs that the draft upon the water of the soil is 
so great that nearly all the water is quickly and so 
completely abstracted from the upper few inches of 
soil that they are left as an effective protection against 
further evaporation. For instance, in localities 
where hot dry winds are of common occurrence, the 
upper layer of soil is sometimes completely dried be- 
fore the water in the lower layers can by slow capil- 
lary movement reach the top. The dry soil layer 
then prevents further loss of water, and the wind 
because of its intensity has helped to conserve the 
soil-moisture. Similarly in locahties where the rela- 
tive humidity is low, the sunshine abundant, and 
the temperature high, evaporation may go on so 
rapidly that the lower soil layers cannot supply the 
demands made, and the topsoil then dries out so 
completely as to form a protective covering against 
further evaporation. It is on this principle that the 
native desert soils of the United States, untouched 



CONDITIONS OF EVAPORATION 149 

by the plow, and the surfaces of which are sun-baked, 
are often found to possess large percentages of water 
at lower depths. Whitney recorded this observation 
with considerable surprise, many years ago, and other 
observers have found the same conditions at nearly 
all points of the arid region. This matter has been 
subjected to further study by Buckingham, who 
placed a variety of soils under artificially arid and 
humid conditions. It was found in every case that 
the initial evaporation was greater under arid con- 
ditions, but as the process went on and the topsoil 
of the arid soil became dry, more water was lost 
under humid conditions. For the whole experimen- 
tal period, also, more water was lost under humid 
conditions. It was notable that the dry protective 
layer was formed more slowly on alkah soils, which 
would point to the inadvisability of using alkali lands 
for dry-farm purposes. All in all, however, it ap- 
pears ^^ that under very arid conditions a soil auto- 
matically protects itself from drying by the forma- 
tion of a natural mulch on the surface. '' 

Naturally, dry-farm soils differ greatly in their 
power of forming such a mulch. A heavy clay or a 
light sandy soil appears to have less power of such 
automatic protection than a loamy soil. An ad- 
mixture of limestone seems to favor the formation of 
such a natural protective mulch. Ordinarily, the 
farmer can further the formation of a dry topsoil 
layer by stirring the soil thoroughly. This assists 



150 DRY-FARMING 

the sunshine and the air to evaporate the water 
very quickly. Such cultivation is very desirable 
for other reasons also, as will soon be discussed. 
Meanwhile, the water-dissipating forces of the dry- 
farm section are not wholly objectionable, for 
whether the land be cultivated or not, they tend to 
hasten the formation of dry surface layers of soil 
which guard against excessive evaporation. It is in 
moist cloudy weather, when the drying process is 
slow, that evaporation causes the greatest losses of 
soil-moisture. 



The effect of shading 

Direct sunshine is, next to- temperature, the most 
active cause of rapid evaporation from moist soil 
surfaces. Whenever, therefore, evaporation is not 
rapid enough to form a dry protective layer of top- 
soil, shading helps materially in reducing surface 
losses of soil-water. Under very arid conditions, 
however, it is questionable whether in all cases shad- 
ing has a really beneficial effect, though under semi- 
arid or sub-humid conditions the benefits derived 
from shading are increased largely. Ebermayer 
showed in 1873 that the shading due to the forest 
cover reduced evaporation 62 per cent, and many 
experiments since that day have confirmed this 
conclusion. At the Utah Station, under arid condi- 



SHADING AND EVAPORATION 



151 



tions, it was found that shading a pot of soil, which 
otherwise was subjected to water-dissipating influ- 
ences, saved 29 per cent of the loss due to evaporation 
from a pot which was not shaded. This principle 
cannot be applied veiy greatly in practice, but it 



^v-> ^,^ J^i 1 ^ "^ ^ 








Fig. 34. Alfalfa in cultivated rows. This practice is employed to 
possible the growth of alfalfa and other perennial crops on arid 
without irrigation. 



make 
lands 



points to a somewhat thick planting, proportioned 
to the water held by the soil. It also shows a pos- 
sible benefit to be derived from the high header 
straw which is allowed to stand for several weeks 
in dry-farm sections where the harvest comes 
early and the fall plowing is done late, as in the 
mountain states. The high header stubble shades 
the ground very thoroughly. Thus the stubble 
may be made to conserve the soil-moisture in dry- 



152 DRY-FARMING 

farm sections, where grain is harvested by the 
^'header'' method. 

A special case of shading is the mulching of land 
with straw or other barnyard litter, or with leaves, 
as in the forest. Such mulching reduces evaporation, 
but only in part, because of its shading action, since 
it acts also as a loose top layer of soil matter breaking 
communication with the lower soil layers. 

Whenever the soil is carefully stirred, as will be 
described, the value of shading as a means of checking 
evaporation disappears almost entirely. It is only 
with soils which are tolerably moist at the surface 
that shading acts beneficially. 

The effect of tillage 

Capillary soil-moisture moves from particle to 
particle until the surface is reached. The closer the 
soil grains are packed together, the greater the num- 
ber of points of contact, and the more easily will the 
movement of the soil-moisture proceed. If by any 
means a layer of the soil is so loosened as to reduce 
the number of points of contact, the movement of the 
soil-moisture is correspondingly hindered. The pro- 
cess is somewhat similar to the experience in large 
railway stations. Just before train time a great 
crowd of people is gathered outside of the gates ready 
to show their tickets. If one gate is opened, a certain 
number of passengers can pass through each minute ; 



TILLAGE AND EVAPORATION 153 

if two are opened, nearly twice as many may be ad- 
mitted in the same time ; if more gates are opened, 
the passengers will be able to enter the train more 
rapidly. The water in the lower layers of the soil is 
ready to move upward whenever a call is made upon 
it. To reach the surface it must pass from soil grain 
to soil grain, and the larger the numbcT of grains that 
touch, the more quickly and easily will the water 
reach the surface, for the points of contact of the soil 
particles may be likened to the gates of the railway 
station. Now if, by a thorough stirring and loosen- 
ing of the topsoil, the number of points of contact 
between the top and subsoil is greatly reduced, the 
upward flow of water is thereby largely checked. 
Such a loosening of the topsoil for the purpose of 
reducing evaporation from the topsoil has come to 
be called cultivation, and includes plowing, harrow- 
ing, disking, hoeing, and other cultural operations by 
which the topsoil is stirred. The breaking of the 
points of contact between the top and subsoil is un- 
doubtedly the main reason for the efficiency of cul- 
tivation, but it is also to be remembered that such 
stirring helps to dry the top soil very thoroughly, 
and as has been explained a layer of dry soil of itself 
is a very effective check upon surface evaporation. 
(See Fig. 35.) 

That the stirring or cultivation of the topsoil 
really does diminish evaporation of water from the 
soil has been shown b}^ numerous investigations. 



154 



DRY-FARMING 



In 1868, Nessler found that during six weeks of an 
ordinary German summer a stirred soil lost 510 
grams of water per square foot, while the adjoining 
compacted soil lost 1680 grams, — a saving due to 
cultivation of nearly 60 per cent. Wagner, testing 





Fig. 35. Tillage forms a loose dry mulch on the land surface, which 
prevents evaporation. 

the correctness of Nessler's work, found, in 1874, 
that cultivation reduced the evaporation a little more 
than 60 per cent; Johnson, in 1878, confirmed the 
truth of the principle on American soils, and Levi 
Stockbridge, working about the same time^ also on 
American soils, found that cultivation diminished 
evaporation on a clay soil about 23 per cent, on a 
sandy loam 55 per cent, and on a heavy loam nearly 
13 per cent. All the early work done on this subject 
was done under humid conditions, and it is only in 



TILLAGE AND EVAPORATION 155 

recent years that confirmation of this important 
principle has been obtained for the soils of the dry- 
farm region. Fortier, working under California con- 
ditions, determined that cultivation reduced the 
evaporation from the soil surface over 55 per cent. 
At the Utah Station similar experiments have shown 
that the saving of soil-moisture by cultivation was 63 
per cent for a clay soil, 34 per cent for a coarse sand, 
and 13 per cent for a clay loam. Further, practical 
experience has demonstrated time and time again that 
in cultivation the dry-farmer has a powerful means 
of preventing evaporation from agricultural soils. 

Closely connected with cultivation is the practice 
of scattering strav/ or other litter over the ground. 
Such artificial mulches are very effective in reducing 
evaporation, Ebermayer found that by spreading 
straw on the land, the evaporation was reduced 22 
per cent; Wagner found under similar conditions a 
saving of 38 per cent, and these results have been 
confirmed by many other investigators. On the 
modern dry-farms, which are large in area, the arti- 
ficial mulching of soils cannot become a very exten- 
sive practice, 3^et it is well to bear the principle in 
mind. The practice of harvesting dr3'-farm grain 
with the header and plowing under the high stubble 
in the fall is a phase of cultivation for water conser- 
vation that deserves special notice. The straw, thus 
incorporated into the soil, decomposes quite readily 
in spite of the popular notion to the contrary, and 



156 



DRY-FARMING 



makes the soil more porous, and, therefore, more ef- 
fectively worked for the prevention of evaporation. 
When this practice is continued for considerable 
periods, the topsoil becomes rich in organic matter. 




Fig. 46. Dry-farm flax in Ferj^us Co., Montana, I'.iOiK "i icld, 22 l)ushcls 

per acre. 

which assists in retarding evaporation, besides increas- 
ing the fertility of the land. When straw cannot be 
fed to advantage, as is yet the case on many of the 
western dry-farms, it would be better to scatter it 
over the land than to burn it, as is often done. Any- 
thing that covers the ground or loosens the topsoil 
prevents in a measure the evaporation of the water 
stored in lower soil depths for the use of crops. 



TILLAGE AND EVAPORATION 157 

Depth of cultivation 

The all-important practice for the dry-farmer who 
is entering upon the growing season is cultivation. 
The soil must be covered continually with a deep 
layer of dry loose soil, which because of its looseness 
and dryness makes evaporation difficult. A leading 
question in connection with cultivation is the depth 
to which the soil should be stirred for the best results. 
Many of the early students of the subject found that 
a soil mulch only one half inch in depth was effective 
in retaining a large part of the soil-moisture which 
noncultivated soils would lose by evaporation. 
Soils differ greatly in the rate of evaporation from 
their surfaces. Some form a natural mulch when 
dried, which prevents further water loss. Others form 
only a thin hard crust, below which lies an active 
evaporating surface of wet soil. Soils which dry out 
readily and crumble on top into a natural mulch 
should be cultivated deeply, for a shallow cultivation 
does not extend beyond the naturally formed mulch. 
In fact, on certain calcareous soils, the surfaces of 
which dry out quickly and form a good protection 
against evaporation, shallow cultivations often cause 
a greater evaporation by disturbing the almost per- 
fect natural mulch. Clay or sand soils, which do not 
so well form a natural mulch, will respond much better 
to shallow cultivations. In general, however, the 
deeper the cultivation, the more effective it is in re- 



158 DRY-FARMING 

diicing evaporation. Fortier, in the experiments in 
California to which allusion has already been made, 
showed the greater value of deep cultivation. Dur- 
ing a period of fifteen days, beginning immediately 
after an irrigation, the soil which had not been 
mulched lost by evaporation nearly one fourth of 
the total amount of water that had been added. A 
mulch 4 inches deep saved about 72 per cent of the 
evaporation ; a mulch 8 inches deep saved about 88 
per cent, and a mulch 10 inches deep stopped evapo- 
ration almost wholly. It is a most serious mis- 
take for the dry -farmer, who attempts cultivation 
for soil-moisture conservation, to fail to get the best 
results simply to save a few cents per acre in added 
labor. 

When to cultivate or till 

It has already been shown that the rate of evap- 
oration is greater from a wet than from a dry surface. 
It follows, therefore, that the critical time for pre- 
venting evaporation is when the soil is wettest. 
After the soil is tolerably dry, a very large portion 
of the soil-moisture has been lost, which possibly 
might have been saved by earlier cultivation. The 
truth of this statement is well shown l)y experiments 
conducted by the Utah Station. In one case on a soil 
well filled with water, during a three weeks' period, 
nearly one half of the total loss occurred the first, 
while only one fifth fell on the third week. Of the 



REGULATING THE EVAPORATION 159 

amount lost during the first week, over 60 per cent 
occurred during the first three days. Cultivation 
should, therefore, be practiced as soon as possible 
after conditions favorable for evaporation have been 
established. This means, first, that in early spring, 
just as soon as the land is dry enough to be worked 
without causing puddhng, the soil should be deeply 
and thoroughly stirred. Spring plowing, done as 
early as possible, is an excellent practice for forming 
a mulch against evaporation. Even when the land 
has been fall-plowed, spring plowing is very bene- 
ficial, though on fall-plowed land the disk harrow is 
usually used in early spring, and if it is set at rather a 
sharp angle, and properly weighted, so that it cuts 
deeply into the ground, it is practically as effective 
as spring plowing. The chief danger to the dry- 
farmer is that he will permit the early spring days 
to slip by until, when at last he begins spring culti- 
vation, a large portion of the stored soil-water has 
been evaporated. It may be said that deep fall 
plowing, by permitting the moisture to sink quickly 
into the lower layers of soil, makes it possible to get 
upon the ground earlier in the spring. In fact, un- 
plowed land cannot be cultivated as early as that 
which has gone through the winter in a plowed 
condition. 

If the land carries a fall-sown crop, early spring 
cultivation is doubly important. As soon as the 
plants are well up in spring the land should be gone 



160 DRY-FARMING 

over thoroughly several times if necessary, with an 
iron tooth harrow, the teeth of which are set to slant 
backward in order not to tear up the plants. The 
loose earth mulch thus formed is very effective in 
conserving moisture ; and the few plants torn up are 
more than paid for by the increased water supply for 
the remaining plants. The wise dry-farmer culti- 
vates his land, whether fallow or cropped, as early 
as possible in the spring. 

Following the first spring plowing, disking, or culti- 
vation, must come more cultivation. Soon after the 
spring plowing, the land should be disked and then 
harrowed. Every device should be used to secure 
the formation of a layer of loose drying soil over the 
land surface. The season's crop will depend largely 
upon the effectiveness of this spring treatment. 

As the season advances, three causes combine to 
permit the evaporation of soil-moisture. 

First, there is a natural tendency, under the some- 
what moist conditions of spring, for the soil to settle 
compactly and thus to restore the numerous capillary 
connections with the lower soil layers through which 
w^ater escapes. Careful watch should therefore be 
kept upon the soil surface, and whenever the mulch 
is not loose, the disk or harrow should be run over 
the land. 

Secondly, every rain of spring or summer tends to 
estabhsh connections with the store of moisture in 
the soil. In fact, late spring and summer rains are 




O 



a 
o 



CO 



o 

M 



162 DRY-FARMING 

often a disadvantage on dry-farms, which by cul- 
tural treatment have been made to contain a large 
store of moisture. It has been shown repeatedly 
that light rains draw moisture very quickly from 
soil layers many feet below the surface. The rain- 
less summer is not feared by the dry-farmer whose 
soils are fertile and rich in moisture. It is impera- 
tive that at the very earhest moment after a spring 
or summer rain the topsoil be well stirred to prevent 
evaporation. It thus happens that in sections of 
frequent summer rains, as in the Great Plains area, 
the farmer has to harrow his land many times in 
succession, but the increased crop yields invariably 
justify the added expenditure of effort. 

Thirdly, on the summer-fallowed ground weeds 
start vigorously in the spring and draw upon the soil- 
moisture, if allowed to grow, fully as heavily as a crop 
of wheat or corn. The dry-farmer must not allow 
a weed upon his land. Cultivation must be so con- 
tinuous as to make weeds an impossibihty. The 
belief that the elements added to the soil by weeds 
offset the loss of soil-moisture is wholly erroneous. 
The growth of weeds on a fallow dry-farm is more 
dangerous than the packed uncared-for topsoil. 
Many implements have been devised for the easy 
kilhng of weeds, but none appear to be better than 
the plow and the disk which are found on every farm. 
(See Chapter XV.) 

When crops are growing on the land, thorough 



REGULATING THE EVAPORATION 163 

summer cultivation is somewhat more difficult, but 
must be practiced for the greatest certainty of crop 
yields. Potatoes, corn, and similar crops may be 
cultivated with comparative ease, by the use of 
ordinary cultivators. With wheat and the other 
small grains, generally, the damage done to the crop 
by^ harrowing late in the season is too great, and 
reliance is therefore placed on the shading power of 
the plants to prevent undue evaporation. However, 
until the wheat and other grains are ten to twelve 
inches high, it is perfectly safe to harrow them. The 
teeth should be set backward to diminish the tearing 
up of the plants, and the implement weighted enough 
to break the soil crust thoroughly. This practice 
has been fully tried out over the larger part of the 
dry-farm territory and found satisfactory. 

So vitally important is a permanent soil mulch for 
the conservation for plant use of the water stored in 
the soil that many attempts have been made to de- 
vise means for the effective cultivation of land on 
which small grains and grasses are growing. In 
many places plants have been grown in rows so far 
apart that a man with a hoe could pass between 
them. Scofield has described this method as prac- 
ticed successfully in Tunis. Campbell and others 
in America have proposed that a drill hole be closed 
every three feet to form a path wide enough for a 
horse to travel in and to pull a large spring tooth 
cultivator, with teeth so spaced as to strike between 



164 DRY-FARMING 

the rows of wheat. It is yet doubtful whether, under 
average conditions, such careful cultivation, at least 
of grain crops, is justified by the returns. Under 
conditions of high aridity, or where the store of soil- 
moisture is low, such treatment frequently stands 
between crop success and failure, and it is not un- 
likely that methods will be devised which will permit 
of the cheap and rapid cultivation between the rows 
of growing wheat. Meanwhile, the dry-farmer must 
always remember that the margin under which he 
works is small, and that his success depends upon the 
degree to which he prevents small wastes. 

The conservation of soil-moisture depends upon the 
vigorous, unremitting, continuous stirring of the top- 
soil. Cultivation ! cultivation ! and more cultiva- 
tion ! must be the war-cry of the dry-farmer who 
battles against the water thieves of an arid climate. 



CHAPTER IX 

REGULATING THE TRANSPIRATION 

Water that has entered the soil may be lost in 
three ways. First, it may escape by downward 
seepage, whereby it passes beyond the reach of plant 
roots and often reaches the standing water. In dry- 
farm districts such loss is a rare occurrence, for the 
natural precipitation is not sufficiently large to con- 
nect with the country drainage, and it may, therefore, 
be eliminated from consideration. Second, soil- 
water may be lost by direct evaporation from the sur- 
face soil. The conditions prevailing in arid districts 
favor strongly this manner of loss of soil-moisture. 
It has been shown, however, in the preceding chapter 
that the farmer, by proper and persistent cultivation 
of the topsoil, has it in his power to reduce this 
loss enough to be almost negligible in the farmer's 
consideration. Third, soil-water may be lost by 
evaporation from the plants themselves. While it 
is not generally understood, this source of loss is, in 
districts where dry-farming is properly carried on, 
very much larger than that resulting either from seep- 
age or from direct evaporation. While plants are 
growing, evaporation from plants, ordinarily called 
transpiration, continues. Experiments performed 

165 



166 DRY-FARMING 

in various arid districts have shown that one and 
a half to three times more water evaporates from 
the plant than directly from well-tilled soil. To the 
present very little has been learned concerning the 
most effective methods of checking or controlling 
this continual loss of water. Transpiration, or the 
evaporation of water from the plants themselves, 
and the means of controlling this loss, are subjects of 
the deepest importance to the dry-farmer. 

Absorption 

To understand the methods for reducing trans- 
piration, as proposed in this chapter, it is necessary 
to review briefly the manner in which plants take 
water from the soil. The roots are the organs of 
water absorption. Practically no water is taken into 
""the plants b}' the stems or leaves, even under condi- 
tions of heavy rainfall. Such small quantities as 
may enter the plant through the stems and leaves are 
of very little value in furthering the life and growth 
6f the plant. The roots alone are of real conse- 
quence in water absorption. All parts of the roots do 
not possess equ^l power of taking up soil- water. In 
the process of water absorption the 3^ounger roots 
are most active and effective. Even of the young 
roots, however, only certain parts are actively en- 
gaged in water absorption. At the very tips of the 
young growing roots are numerous fine hairs, shown 



ABSORPTION BY ROOTS 



167 



largely magnified in Figure 38. These root-hairs, 
which cluster about the 
growing point of the 
young roots, are the 
organs of the plant 
that absorb soil-water. 
They are of value only 
for limited periods of 
time, for as they grow 
older, they lose their 
power of water absorp- 
tion. In fact, they are 
active only when the}^ 
are in actual process 
of growth. It follows, 
therefore, that water 
absorption occurs near 
the tips of the growing 
roots, and whenever a 
plant ceases to grow 
the water absorption 
ceases also. The root- 
hairs are filled with a 
dilute solution of vari- 
ous substances, as yet 
poorly understood, 

which olavq nn imi^oi- f^^' '^^' Wheat root, showing 

uiiiLii pidys an mipoi- sod partk-les dinging to the lower part 
tant part in the ab- '^^^^^ the root-hairs are active. 

sorption of water and plant-food from the soil. 




168 DKY-FARMING 

Owing to their minuteness^ the root-hairs are in 
most cases immersed in the water film that surrounds 
the soil particles, and the soil-water is taken directly 
into the roots from the soil-water film by the process 
known as osmosis. The explanation of this inward 
movement is complicated and need not be discussed 
here. It is sufficient to say that the concentration or 
strength of the solution within the root-hair is of dif- 
ferent degree from the soil-water solution. The water 
tends, therefore, to move from the soil into the root, 
in order to make the solutions inside and outside of 
the root of the same concentration. If it should ever 
occur that the soil-water and the water within the 
root-hair became the same concentration, that is to 
say, contained the same substances in the same pro- 
portional amounts, there would be no further inward 
movement of water. Moreover, if it should happen 
that the soil-water is stronger than the water within 
the root-hair, the water would tend to pass from the 
plant into the soil. This is the condition that pre- 
vails in many alkali lands of the West, and is the 
cause of the death of plants growing on such lands. 

It is clear that under these circumstances not only 
water enters the root-hairs, but many of the sub- 
stances found in solution in the soil-water enter the 
plant also. Among these are the mineral substances 
which are indispensable for the proper life and growth 
of plants. These plant nutrients are so indispen- 
sable that if any one of them is absent, it is absolutely 



FUNCTIONS OF ROOT-HAIRS 



169 



impossible for the plant to continue its life functions. 
The indispensable plant-foods gathered from the soil 
by the root-hairs, in addition to water, are : potas- 
sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, nitrogen, and phos- 
phorus, — all in their proper combinations. How the 
plant uses these substances is yet poorly understood. 




Fig. 39. Penetration of a root-hair through soil. 



but we are fairly certain that each one has some 
particular function in the life of the plant. For 
instance, nitrogen and phosphorus are probably 
necessary in the formation of the protein or the 
flesh-forming portions of the plant, while potash 
is especially valuable in the formation of starch. 

There is a constant movement of the indispensable 
plant nutrients after they have entered the root-hairs. 



170 DRY-FARMING 

through the stems and into the leaves. This con- 
stant movement of the plant-foods depends upon the 
fact that the plant consumes in its growth consider- 
able quantities of these substances, and as the plant 
juices are diminished in their content of particular 
plant-foods, more enters from the soil solution. The 
necessary plant-foods do not alone enter the plant, 
but whatever may be in solution in the soil-water 
enters the plant in variable quantities. Nevertheless, 
since the plant uses only a few definite substances and 
leaves the unnecessary ones in solution, there is soon 
a cessation of the inward movement of the unimpor- 
tant constituents of the soil solution. This process 
is often spoken of as selective absorption; that is, 
the plant, because of its vital activity, appears to 
have the power of selecting from the soil certain 
substances and rejecting others. 

Movement of water through the plant 

The soil-water, holding in solution a great variety 
of plant nutrients, passes from the root-hairs into 
the adjoining cells and gradually moves from cell to 
cell throughout the whole plant. In many plants 
this stream of water does not simply pass from cell 
to cell, but moves through tubes that apparently 
have been formed for the specific purpose of aiding 
the movement of water through the plant. The 
rapidity of this current is often considerable. Or- 



WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANT 



171 



dinarily, it varies from one foot to six feet per hour, 
though observations are on record showing that the 
movement often reaches the rate of eighteen feet per 
hour. It is evident, 
then, that in an ac- 
tively growing plant 
it does not take long 
for the water which is 
in the soil to find its 
way to the upper- 
most parts of the 
plant. 

The work of leaves 
Whether water„ .r. at c ^ .u- x. ■ 

Fig. 40. Magnined root-nairs, showing 
passes upward from how soU particles are attached to them. 

cell to cell or through 

especially provided tubes, it reaches at last the 
leaves, where evaporation takes place. It is nec- 
essary to consider in greater detail what takes place 
in leaves in order that we may more clearly under- 
stand the loss due to transpiration. One half or 
more of every plant is made up of the element carbon. 
The remainder of the plant consists of the mineral 
substances taken from the soil (not more than two to 
10 per cent of the dry plant) and water which has 
been combined with the carbon and these mineral 
substances to form the characteristic products of 
plant life. The carbon wliich forms over half of the 




172 DEY-FARMING 

plant substance is gathered from the air by the 
leaves and it is evident that the leaves are very 
active agents of plant growth. The atmosphere 
consists chiefly of the gases oxygen and nitrogen in 
the proportion of one to four^ but associated with 
them are small quantities of various other substances. 
Chief among the secondary constituents of the at- 
mosphere is the gas carbon dioxid^ which is formed 
when carbon burns^ that is^ when carbon unites with 
the oxygen of the air. Whenever coal or wood or 
any carbonaceous substance burns^ carbon dioxid 
is formed. Leaves have the power of absorbing 
the gas carbon dioxid from the air and separating 
the carbon from the oxygen. The oxygen is returned 
to the atmosphere while the carbon is retained to be 
used as the fundamental substance in the construc- 
tion by the plant of oils, fats, starches, sugars, pro- 
tein, and all the other products of plant growth. 

This important process known as carbon assimila- 
tion is made possible by the aid of countless small 
openings which exist chiefly on the surfaces of leaves 
and known as '^ stomata.^' The stomata are delicately 
balanced valves, exceedingly sensitive to external 
influences. Their appearance under a high power mi- 
croscope is shown in Figures 41 and 42. They are 
more numerous on the lower side than on the upper 
side of plants. In fact, there is often five times more 
on the under side than on the upper side of a leaf. It 
has been estimated that 150,000 stomata or more are 



OFFICE OF STOMATA 



173 



often found per square inch on the under side of the 
leaves of ordinary cultivated plants. The stomata 




lO'lOOO 



;0O0c^ 



B 



D 




A ■ C 

Fig. 41. Diagram of open and partly closed breathing-pores on leaves. 
Through these openings water escapes from the plant. (From King's 
" Irrigation and Drainage.") 

or breathing-pores are so constructed that they may 
open and close very 
readily. In wilted 
leaves they are prac- 
tically closed ; often 
they also close im- 
mediately after a 
rain; but in 
sunlight they 
usually wide open. 
It is tlirough the 
stomata that the 
gases of the air enter 
the plant through 
which the discarded 
oxygen returns to the atmosphere. 

It is also through the stomata that the water which 



strong 
are 




Fig, 



42. Photograph of stomata or breath- 
ing-pores on under side of leaf. 



174 DRY-FARMING 

is drawn from the soil by the roots through the stems 
is evaporated into the air. There is some evapora- 
tion of water from the stems and branches of plants, 
but it is seldom more than a thirtieth or a fortieth of 
the total transpiration. The evaporation of water 
from the leaves through the breathing-pores is the 
so-called transpiration, which is the greatest cause 
of the loss of soil-water under dry-farm conditions. 
It is to the prevention of this transpiration that 
much investigation must be given by future students 
of dry-farming. 

Transpiration 

As water evaporates through the breathing-pores 
from the leaves it necessarily follows that a demand 
is made upon the lower portions of the plant for 
more water. The effect of the loss of water is felt 
throughout the whole plant and is, undoubtedly, one 
of the chief causes of the absorption of water from 
the soil. As evaporation is diminished the amount 
of water that enters the plants is also diminished. 
Yet transpiration appears to be a process wholly 
necessary for plant life. The question is, simply, 
to what extent it may be diminished without inj uring 
plant growth. Many students believe that the car- 
bon assimilation of the plant, which is fundamentally 
important in plant growth, cannot be continued un- 
less there is a steady stream of water passing through 
the plant and then evaporating from the leaves. 



TRANSPIRATION FROM PLANTS 175 

Of one thing we are fairly sure : if the upward stream 
of water is wholly stopped, for even a few hours, the 
plant is likely to be so severely injured as to be greatly 
handicapped in its future growth. 

Botanical authorities agree that transpiration is 
of value to plant growth, first, because it helps to dis- 
tribute the mineral nutrients necessary for plant 
growth uniformly throughout the plant; secondly, 
because it permits an active assimilation of the car- y 
bon by the leaves ; thirdly, because it is not unlikely 
that the heat required to evaporate water, in large 
part taken from the plant itself, prevents the plant 
from being overheated. This last mentioned value of 
transpiration is especially important in dry-farm 
districts, where, during the summer, the heat is often 
intense. Fourthly, transpiration apparently influ- 
ences plant growth and development in a number of . 
wavs not yet clearly understood. 

Conditions influencing transpiration 

In general, the conditions that determine the 
evaporation of water from the leaves are the same 
as those that favor the direct evaporation of water 
from soils, although there seems to be something in 
the life process of the plant, a physiological factor, 
which permits or prevents the ordinary water-dis- 
sipating factors from exercising their full powers. 
That the evaporation of water from the soil or from 



176 DRY-FARMING 

a free water surface is not the same as that from 
plant leaves may be shown in a general way from the 
fact that the amount of water transpired from a 
given area of leaf surface may be very much larger 
or very much smaller than that evaporated from an 
equal surface of free water exposed to the same con- 
ditions. It is further shown by the fact that whereas 
evaporation from a free water surface goes on with 
little or no interruption throughout the twenty-four 
hours of the day, transpiration is virtually at a stand- 
still at night even though the conditions for the rapid 
evaporation from a free water surface are present. 

Some of the conditions influencing the transpira- 
tion may be enumerated as follows : — 

First, transpiration is influenced by the relative 
humidity. In dry air, under otherwise similar con- 
ditions, plants transpire more water than in moist air, 
though it is to be noted that even when the atmos- 
phere is fully saturated, so that no water evaporates 
from a free water surface, the transpiration of plants 
still continues in a small degree. This is explained 
by the observation that since the life process of a 
plant produces a certain amount of heat, the plant 
is always warmer than the surrounding air and that 
transpiration into an atmosphere fully charged with 
water vapor is consequently made possible. The 
fact that transpiration is greater under a low relative 
humidity is of greatest importance to the dry-farmer, 
who has to contend with the dry atmosphere. 



TRANSPIRATION FROM PLANTS 177 

Second, transpiration increases with the increase 
in temperature; that is, under conditions otherwise 
the same, transpiration is more rapid on a warm day 
than on a cold one. The tenjperature increase of it- 
self, however, is not sufficient to cause transpiration. 

Third, transpiration increases with the increase of 
air currents, which is to say, that on a windy day 
transpiration is much more rapid than on a quiet day. 

Fourth, transpiration increases with the increase 
of direct sunlight. It is an interesting observation 
that even with the same relative humidity, tempera- 
ture, and wind, transpiration is reduced to a minimum 
during the night and increases manyfold during the 
day when direct sunlight is available. This condi- 
tion is again to be noted by the dry-farmer, for the 
dry-farm districts are characterized by an abundance 
of sunshine. 

Fifth, transpiration is decreased by the presence 
in the soil-water of large quantities of the substances 
which the plant needs for its food material. This 
will be discussed more fully in the next section. 

Sixth, any mechanical vibration of the plant 
seems to have some effect upon the transpiration. 
At times it is increased and at times it is decreased by 
such mechanical disturbance. 

Seventh, transpiration varies also with the age of 
the plant. In the young plant it is comparatively 
small. Just before blooming it is very much larger 
and in time of bloom it is the largest in the history of 



178 DRY-FARMING 

the plant. As the plant grows older transpiration 
diminishes, and finally at the ripening stage it almost 
ceases. 

Eighth, transpiration varies greatly with the crop. 
Not all plants take water from the soil at the same 
rate. Very little is as yet known about the relative 
water requirements of crops on the basis of transpira- 
tion. As an illustration, MacDougall has reported 
that sagebrush uses about one fourth as much water 
as a tomato plant. Even greater differences exist 
between other plants. This is one of the interesting 
subjects yet to be investigated by those who are en- 
gaged in the reclamation of dry-farm districts. More- 
over, the same crop grown under different conditions 
varies in its rate of transpiration. For instance, 
plants grown for some time under arid conditions 
greatly modify their rate of transpiration, as shown 
by Spalding, who reports that a plant reared under 
humid conditions gave off 3.7 times as much water 
as the same plant reared under arid conditions. 
This very interesting observation tends to confirm 
the view commonly held that plants grown under 
arid conditions will gradually adapt themselves to 
the prevailing conditions, and in spite of the greater 
water dissipating conditions will live with the ex- 
penditure of less water than would be the case under 
humid conditions. Further, Sorauer found, many 
years ago, that different varieties of the same crop 
possess very different rates of transpiration. This 




Si^SPIRATION 179 



also is an interesting subject that should be more 
fully investigated in the future. 

Ninth, the vigor of growth of a crop appears to 
have a strong influence on transpiration. It does not 
follow, however, that the more vigorously a crop 
grows, the more rapidly does it transpire water, for 
it is well known that the most luxuriant plant growth 
occurs in the tropics, where the transpiration is exceed- 
ingly low. It seems to be true that under the same 
conditions, plants that grow most vigorously tend to 
use proportionately the smallest amount of water. 

Tenth, the root system — its depth and manner of 
growth — influences the rate of transpiration. The 
more vigorous and extensive the root system, the 
more rapidly can water be secured from the soil by 
the plant. 

The conditions above enumerated as influencing 
transpiration are nearly all of a physical character, and 
it must not be forgotten that they may all be annulled 
or changed by a physiological regulation. It must 
be admitted that the subject of transpiration is yet 
poorly understood, though it is one of the most im- 
portant subjects fn its applications to plant produc- 
tion in localities where water is scarce. It should 
also be noted that nearly all of the above conditions 
influencing transpiration are beyond the control of the 
farmer. The one that seems most readily controlled 
in ordinary agricultural practice will be discussed in 
the following section. 



180 DRY-FARMING 



Plant-food and transpiration 

It has been observed repeatedly by students of 
transpiration that the amount of water which actually 
evaporates from the leaves is varied materially by 
the substances held in solution by the soil-water. 
That is^ transpiration depends upon the nature and 
concentration of soil solution. This fact^ though not 
commonly applied even at the present time, has 
really been known for a very long time. Woodward, 
in 1699, observed that the amount of water tran- 
spired by a plant growing in rain water was 192.3 
grams; in spring water, 163.6 grams, and in water 
from the River Thames, 159.5 gram&; that is, the 
amount of water transpired by the plant in the com- 
paratively pure rain water was nearly 20 per cent 
higher than that used by the plant growing in the 
notoriously impure water of the River Thames. 
Sachs, in 1859, carried on an elaborate series of ex- 
periments on transpiration in which he showed that 
the addition of potassium nitrate, ammonium sul- 
phate or common salt to the solution in which plants 
grew reduced the transpiration; in fact, the reduc- 
tion was large, varying from 10 to 75 per cent. This 
was confirmed by a number of later workers, among 
them, for instance, Buergerstein, who, in 1875, 
showed that whenever acids were added to a soil or to 
water in which plants are growing, the transpiration 



TRANSPIRATION AND SOIL SOLUTION 



181 



is increased greatly; but when alkalies of any kind 
are added, transpiration decreases. This is of special 
interest in the development of dry-farming, since 
dry-farm soils, as a rule, contain more substances 




Fr 



..;...! tilth of t>oix. 



that may be classed as alkalies than do soils main- 
tained under humid conditions. Sour soils are 
very characteristic of districts where the rainfall is 
abundant ; the vegetation growing on such soils tran- 



182 DRY-FARMING 

spires excessively and the crops are consequently 
more subject to drouth. 

The investigators of almost a generation ago also 
determined beyond question that whenever a com- 
plete nutrient solution is presented to plants, that is, 
a solution containing all the necessary plant-foods 
in the proper proportions, the transpiration is reduced 
immensely. It is not necessary that the plant-foods 
should be presented in a water solution in order to 
effect this reduction in transpiration; if they are 
added to the soil on which plants are growing, the 
same effect will result. The addition of commercial 
fertilizers to the soil will therefore diminish tran- 
spiration. It was further discovered nearly half a 
century ago that similar plants growing on different 
soils evaporate different amounts of water from their 
leaves; this difference, undoubtedly, is due to the 
conditions in the fertility of the soils, for the more 
fertile a soil is, the richer will the soil-water be in the 
necessary plant-foods. The principle that transpira- 
tion or the evaporation of water from the plants 
depends on the nature and concentration of the soil 
solution is of far-reaching importance in the develop- 
ment of a rational practice of dry-farming. 

Transpiration for a pound of dry matter 

Is plant growth proportional to transpiration? 
Do plants that evaporate much water grow more 



AMOUNT OF TRANSPIRATION 183 

rapidly than those that evaporate less ? These ques- 
tions arose very early in the period characterized by 
an active study of transpiration. If varying the 
transpiration varies the growth, there would be no 
special advantage in reducing the transpiration. 
From ah economic point of view the important ques- 
tion is this : Does the plant when its rate of transpira- 
tion is reduced still grow with the same vigor? If 
that be the case, then every effort should be made by 
the farmer to control and to diminish the rate of 
transpiration. 

One of the very earliest experiments on transpira- 
tion, conducted by Woodward in 1699, showed that 
it required less water to produce a pound of dry 
matter if the soil solution were of the proper concen- 
tration and contained the elements necessary for 
plant growth. Little more was done to answer the 
above questions for over one hundred and fifty years. 
Perhaps the question was not even asked during this 
period, for scientific agriculture was j ust coming into 
being in countries where the rainfall was abundant. 
However, Tschaplowitz, in 1878, investigated the 
subject and found that the increase in dry matter is 
greatest when the transpiration is the smallest. 
Sorauer, in researches conducted from 1880 to 1882, 
determined with almost absolute certainty that less 
water is required to produce a pound of dry matter 
when the soil is fertilized than when it is not ferti- 
lized. Moreover, he observed that the enriching of 



184 



DRY-FARMING 



the soil solution by the addition of artificial fertilizers 
enabled the plant to produce dry matter with less 
water. He further found that if a soil is properly 
tilled so as to set free plant-food and in that wa}^ to 
enrich the soil solution the water-cost of dry plant 
substance is decreased. Hellriegel, in 1883^ con- 




FiG. 44. Interior of olive orchard, Sfax, Tunis. Note the great distances 
between the trees and the perfectly clean soil culture. 

firmed this law and laid down the law that poor 
plant nutrition increases the water-cost of every 
pound of dry matter produced. It was about this 
time that the Rothamsted Experiment Station re- 
ported that its experiments had shown that during 
periods of drouth the well-tilled and well-fertilized 
fields yielded good crops^ while the unfertilized fields 



FERTILITY AND TRANSPIRATION 185 

yielded poor crops or crop failures — indicating 
thereby, since rainfall was the critical factor, that 
the fertility of the soil is important in determining 
whether or not with a small amount of water a good 
crop can be produced. Pagnoul, working in 1895 
with fescue grass, arrived at the same conclusion. 
On a poor clay soil it required 1 109 pounds of water 
to produce one pound of dry matter, while on a rich 
calcareous soil only 574 pounds were required. Gard- 
ner of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
Bureau of Soils, working in 1908, on the manuring of 
soils, came to the conclusion that the more fertile the 
soil the less water is required to produce a pound of 
dry matter. He incidentally called attention to the 
fact that in countries of limited rainfall this might be 
a very important principle to apply in crop produc- 
tion. Hopkins in his study of the soils of Illinois 
has repeatedly observed, in connection with certain 
soils, that where the land is kept fertile, injury from 
drouth is not common, implying thereby that fertile 
soils will produce dry matter at a lower water-cost. 
The most recent experiments on this subject, con- 
ducted by the Utah Station, confirm these conclu- 
sions. The experiments, which covered several years, 
were conducted in pots filled with different soils. 
On a soil, naturally fertile, 908 pounds of water were 
transpired for each pound of dr}^ matter (corn) pro- 
duced ; by adding to this soil an ordinary dressing of 
manure, this was reduced to G13 pounds, and by add- 



186 DRY-FARMING 

ing a small amount of sodium nitrate it was reduced 
^^to 585 pounds. If so large a reduction could be 
secured in practice, it would seem to j ustify the use of 
commercial fertilizers in years when the dry-farm 
year opens with little water stored in the soil. 
Similar results, as will be shown below, were obtained 
by the use of various cultural methods. It may, 
therefore, be stated as a law, that any cultural treat- 
ment which enables the soil-water to acquire larger 
quantities of plant-food also enables the plant to 
produce dry matter with the use of a smaller amount 
of water. In dry-farming, where the limiting factor 
is water, this principle must be emphasized in every 
cultural operation. 

Methods of controlling transpiration 

It would appear that at present the only means 
possessed by the farmer for controlling transpiration 
and making possible maximum crops with the mini- 
mum amount of water in a properly tilled soil is to 
keep the soil as fertile as is possible. In the light 
of this principle the practices already recommended 
for the storing of water and for the prevention of the 
direct evaporation of water from the soil are again 
emphasized. Deep and frequent plowing, preferably 
in the fall so that the weathering of the winter may be 
felt deeply and strongly, is of first importance in 
liberating plant-food. Cultivation which has been 



REGULATING THE TRANSPIRATION 187 

recommended for the prevention of the direct evap- 
oration of water is of itself an effective factor in set- 
ting free plant-food and thus in reducing the amount 
of water required by plants. The experiments at the 
Utah Station, already referred to, bring out very 
strikingly the value of cultivation in reducing the 
transpiration. For instance, in a series of experi- 
ments the following results were obtained. On a 
sandy loam, not cultivated, 603 pounds of water were 
transpired to produce one pound of dry matter of 
corn; on the same soil, cultivated, only 252 pounds 
were required. On a clay loam, not cultivated, 535 
pounds of water were transpired for each pound of 
dry matter, whereas on the cultivated soil only 428 
pounds were necessary. On a clay soil, not cultivated, 
753 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of 
dry matter; on the cultivated soil, only 582 pounds. 
The farmer who faithfully cultivates the soil through- 
out the summer and after every rain has therefore the 
satisfaction of knowing that he is accomplishing two 
very important things: he is keeping the moisture 
in the soil, and he is making it possible for good crops 
to be grown with much less water than would other- 
wise be required. Even in the case of a peculiar soil- 
on which ordinar}^ cultivation did not reduce the 
direct evaporation, the effect upon the transpiration 
was very marked. On the soil which was not culti- 
vated, 451 pounds of water were required to produce 
one pound of dry matter (corn), while on the culti- 



188 DRY-FARMING 

vated soils, though the direct evaporation was no 
smaller, the number of pounds of water for each 
pound of dry substance was as low as 265. 

One of the chief values of fallowing lies in the 
liberation of the plant-food during the fallow year, 
which reduces the quantity of water required the 
next year for the full growth of crops. The Utah 
experiments to which reference has already been 
made show the effect of the previous soil treatment 
upon the water requirements of crops. One half of 
the three types of soil had been cropped for three 
successive years, while the other half had been left 
bare. During the fourth year both halves were 
planted to corn. For the sandy loam it was found 
that, on the part that had been cropped previously, 
659 pounds of water were required for each pound of 
dry matter produced, while on the part that had been 
bare only 573 pounds were required. For the clay 
loam 889 pounds on the cropped part and 550 on 
the previously bare part were required for each pound 
of dry matter. For the clay 7466 pounds on the 
cropped part and 1739 pounds on the previously bare 
part were required for each pound of dry matter. 
These results teach clearly and emphatically that 
the fertile condition of the soil induced by fallowing 
makes it possible to produce dry matter with a smaller 
amount of water than can be done on soils that are 
cropped continuously. The beneficial effects of fal- 
lowing are therefore clearly twofold: to store the 



190 



DRY-FARMING 



moisture of two seasons for the use of one crop ; and 
to set free fertility to enable the plant to grow with 
the least amount of water. It is not yet fully under- 
stood what changes occur in fallowing to give the soil 
the fertility which reduces the water needs of the 




Fig. 46. Dry-farm potatoes, Rosebud Co., Montana, 1909. Yield, 282 

bushels per acre. 

plant. The researches of Atkinson in Montana, 
Stewart and Graves in Utah, and Jensen in South 
Dakota make it seem probable that the formation of 
nitrates plays an important part in the whole process. 
If a soil is of such a nature that neither careful 
deep plowing at the right time nor constant crust 



REGULATING THE TRANSPIRATION 191 

cultivation are sufficient to set free an abundance of 
plant-food, it may be necessary to apply manures or 
commercial fertilizers to the soil. While the question 
of restoring soil fertility has not 3^et come to be a lead- 
ing one in dry-farming, yet in view of what has been 
said in this cha])ter it is not impossible that the time 
will come when the farmers must give primary atten- 
tion to soil fertility in addition to the storing and 
conservation of soil-moisture. The fertilizing of lands 
with proper plant-foods, as shown in the last sections, 
tends to check transpiration and makes possible the 
production of dry matter at the lowest water-cost. 

The recent practice in practically all dry-farm 
districts, at least in the intermountain and far West, 
to use the header for harvesting bears directly upon 
the subject considered in this chapter. The high 
stubble which remains contains much valuable plant- 
food, often gathered many feet below the surface by 
the plant roots. When this stubble is plowed under 
there is a valuable addition of the plant-food to the 
upper soil. Further, as the stubble decays, acid 
substances are produced that act upon the soil grains 
to set free the plant-food locked up in them. The 
plowing under of stubble is therefore of great value 
to the dry-farmer. The plowing under of any other 
organic substance has the same effect. In both cases 
fertility is concentrated near the surface, which dis- 
solves in the soil-water and enables the crop to ma- 
ture with the least quantity of water. 



192 DRY-FARMING 

The lesson then to be learned from this chapter 
is, that it is not sufficient for the dry-farmer to store 
an abundance of water in the soil and to prevent that 
water from evaporating directly from the soil ; but the 
soil must be kept in such a state of high fertility that 
plants are enabled to utilize the stored moisture in 
the most economical manner. Water storage, the 
prevention of evaporation, and the maintenance of 
soil fertility go hand in hand in the development of 
a successful system of farming without irrigation. 



CHAPTER X 

PLOWING AND FALLOWING 

The soil treatment prescribed in the preceding 
chapters rests upon (1) deep and thorough plowing, 
done preferably in the fall ; (2) thorough cultivation 
to form a mulch over the surface of the land, and (3) 
clean summer fallowing every other year under low 
rainfall or every third or fourth year under abundant 
rainfall. 

Students of dry-farming all agree that thorough 
cultivation of the topsoil prevents the evaporation of 
soil-moisture, but some have questioned the value of 
deep and fall plowing and the occasional clean sum- 
mer fallow. It is the purpose of this chapter to state 
the findings of practical men with reference to the 
value of plowing and fallowing in producing large 
crop yields under dry-farm conditions. 

It will be shown in Chapter XVIII that the first 
attempts to produce crops without irrigation under a 
limited rainfall were made independently in many 
diverse places. California, Utah, and the Columbia 
Basin, as far as can now be learned, as well as the 
Great Plains area, were all independent pioneers in 
the art of dry-farming. It is a most significant fact 
that these diverse localities, operating under differ- 
o 193 



194 DRY-FARMING 

ent conditions as to soil and climate, have developed 
practically the same system of dry-farming. In all 
these places the best dry-farmers practice deep plow- 
ing wherever the subsoil will permit it ; fall plowing 
wherever the climate will permit it; the sowing of 
fall grain wherever the winters will permit it, and the 
clean summer fallow every other year, or every third 
or fourth year. H. W. Campbell, who has been the 
leading exponent of dry-farming in the Great Plains 
area, began his work without the clean summer fal- 
low as a part of his system, but has long since adopted 
it for that section of the country. It is scarcely to be 
believed that these practices, developed laboriously 
through a long succession of years in widely separated 
localities, do not rest upon correct scientific prin- 
ciples. In any case, the accumulated experience of 
the dry-farmers in this country confirms the doctrines 
of soil tillage for dry-farms laid down in the preceding 
chapters. 

At the Dry- Farming Congresses large numbers of 
practical farmers assemble for the purpose of ex- 
changing experiences and views. The reports of the 
Congress show a great difference of opinion on minor 
matters and a wonderful unanimity of opinion on the 
more fundamental questions. For instance, deep 
plowing was recommended by all who touched upon 
the subject in their remarks ; though one farmer, who 
lived in a locality the subsoil of which was very inert, 
recommended that the depth of plowing should be 



PLOWING AND FALLOWING 195 

increased graduall}^ until the full depth is reached, to 
avoid a succession of poor crop years while the lifeless 
soil was being vivified. The states of Utah, Mon- 
tana, Wyoming, South Dakota, Colorado, Kansas, 
Nebraska, and the provinces of Alberta and Sas- 
katchewan of Canada all specifically declared through' 
one to eight representatives from each state in favor of 
deep plowing as a fundamental practice in dry-farm- 
ing. Fall plowing, wherever the climatic conditions 
make it possible, was similarly advocated by all the 
speakers. Farmers in certain localities had found the 
soil so dry in the fall that plowing was difficult, but 
Campbell insisted that even in such places it would 
be profitable to use power enough to break up the' 
land before the winter season set in. Numerous, 
speakers from the states of Utah, Wyoming, Montana, 
Nebraska, and a number of the Great Plains states, as 
well as from the Chinese Empire, declared themselves 
as favoring fall plowing. Scarcely a dissenting voice 
was raised. 

In the discussion of the clean summer fallow as 
a vital principle of dry-farming a slight difference of 
opinion was discovered. Farmers from some of the 
localities insisted that the clean summer fallow every 
other year was indispensable; others that one in 
three years was sufficient; and others one in four 
years, and a few doubted the wisdom of it altogether. 
However, all the speakers agreed that clean and 
thorough cultivation should be practiced faithfully 



196 



DRY-FARMING 



during the spring, summer, and fall of the fallow year. 
The appreciation of the fact that weeds consume 
precious moisture and fertility seemed to be general 




Fig. 47. Clean summer fallow. Utah. Note the strip of dirty fallow 
(at left). Only clean summer fallow should be practiced in dry-farming. 

among the dry-farmers from all sections of the coun- 
try. (See Fig. 47.) The following states, provinces, 
and countries declared themselves as being definitely 
and emphatically in favor of clean summer fallowing : 
California, Utah, Nevada, Washington, Montana, 



SUMMER FALLOWING 197 

Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ne- 
braska, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Russia, Turkey, the 
Transvaal, Brazil, and Australia. Each of these many 
districts was represented b}^ one to ten or more 
representatives. The only state to declare somewhat 
vigorously against it was from the Great Plains area, 
and a warning voice was heard from the United States 
Department of Agriculture. The recorded practical 
experience of the farmers over the whole of the dry- 
farm territory of the United States leads to the con- 
viction that fallowing must be accepted as a practice 
which resulted in successful dry-farming. Further, 
the experimental leaders in the dry-farm movement, 
whether working under private, state, or governmental 
direction, are, with very few exceptions, strongly in 
favor of deep fall plowing and clean summer fallow- 
ing as parts of the dry- farm system. 

The chief reluctance to accept clean summer fal- 
lowing as a principle of dry-farming appears chiefly 
among students of the Great Plains area. Even there 
it is admitted by all that a wheat crop following a 
fallow year is larger and better than one following 
wheat. There seem, however, to be two serious rea- 
sons for objecting to it. First, a fear that a clean 
summer fallow, practiced every second, third, or 
fourth year, will cause a large diminution of the or- 
ganic matter in the soil, resulting finally in complete 
crop failure ; and second, a belief that a hoed crop, 
like corn or potatoes, exerts the same beneficial effect. 



198 DRY-FARMING 

It is undoubtedly true that the thorough tillage 
involved in dry-farming exposes to the action of the 
elements the organic matter of the soil and thereby 
favors rapid oxidation. For that reason the different 
ways in which organic matter may be supplied regu- 
larly to dry-farms are pointed out in Chapter XIV. 
It may also be observed that the header harvesting 
system employed over a large part of the dry-farm 
territory leaves the large header stubble to be plowed 
under, and it is prol)able that under such methods 
more organic matter is added to the soil during the 
year of cropping than is lost during the year of fallow- 
ing. It may, moreover, be observed that thorough 
tillage of a crop like corn or potatoes tends to cause a 
loss of the organic matter of the soil to a degree nearl}^ 
as large as is the case when a fallow field is well cul- 
tivated. The thorough stirring of the soil imder an 
arid or semiarid climate, which is an essential feature 
of dry-farming, will always result in a decrease in 
organic matter. It matters little whether the soil is 
fallow or in crop during the process of cultivation, so 
far as the result is concerned. 

A serious matter connected with fallowing in the 
Great Plains area is the blowing of the loose well- 
tilled soil of the fallow fields, which results from the 
heavy winds that blow so steadily over a large part of 
the western slope of the Mississippi Valley. This is 
largely avoided when crops are grown on the land, 
even when it is well tilled. 




a 

-•J 

a 
o 



200 DRY-FARMING 

The theory, recently proposed, that in the Great 
Plains area, where the rains come chiefly in summer, 
the growing of hoed crops may take the place of the 
summer fallow, is said to be based on experimental 
data not yet published. Careful and conscientious 
experimenters, as Chilcott and his co-laborers, indi- 
cate in their statements that in many cases the yields 
of wheat, after a hoed crop, have been larger than 
after a fallow year. The doctrine has, therefore, been 
rather widely disseminated that fallowing has no place 
in the dry-farming of the Great Plains area and 
should be replaced by the growing of hoed crops. 
Chilcott, who is the chief exponent of this doctrine, 
declares, however, that it is only with spring-grown 
crops and for a succession of normal years that fallow- 
ing may be omitted, and that fallowing must be re- 
sorted to as a safeguard or temporary expedient to 
guard against total loss of crop where extreme drouth 
is anticipated; that is, where the rainfall falls below 
the average. He further explains that continuous 
grain cropping, even with careful plowing and spring 
and fall tillage, is unsuccessful ; but holds that certain 
rotations of crops, including grain and a hoed crop 
every other year, are often more profitable than grain 
alternating with clean summer fallow. He further 
believes that the fallow year every third or fourth 
year is sufficient for Great Plains conditions. Jar- 
dine explains that whenever fall grain is grown in the 
Great Plains area, the fallow is remarkably helpful, 



202 



DRY-FARMING 



and in fact because of the dry winters is practically 
indispensable. 

This latter view is confirmed by the experimental 
results obtained by Atkinson and others at the Mon- 
tana Experiment Stations, which are conducted under 
approximately Great Plains conditions. The average 
results follow (See Figs. 48 and 49) : — 





KUBANKA 

Spring Wheat 


White Hull- 
less Barley 


Sixty-day 
Oats 


Substation 


Grown 
Con- 
tinu- 
ously 


After 
Fallow 


Grown 
Con- 
tinu- 
ously 


After 
Fallow 


Grown 
Con- 
tinu- 
ously 


After 
Fallow 


Dawson County .... 
Rosebud County .... 
Yellowstone County 
Chouteau County .... 


Bushel 

15.18 

16.98 

7.73 

14.18 


Bushel 

17.57 
20.80 
19.32 
17.35 


Bushel 

15.97 
15.02 
14.90 
13.29 


Bushel 

20.90 
28.31 
20.33 
11.95 


Bushel 

31.17 
30.21 
13.75 
28.90 


Bushel 

51.00 
40.03 
47.94 
34.56 


Average 


13.52 


18.76 


14.79 


20.37 


26.01 


43.38 



It should be mentioned also that in Saskatchewan, 
in the north end of the Great Plains area, and which 
is characteristic, except for a lower annual tempera- 
ture, of the whole area, and where dry-farming has 
been practiced for a quarter of a century, the clean 
summer fallow has come to be an established practice. 

This recent discussion of the place of fallowing 
in the agriculture of the Great Plains area illustrates 
what has been said so often in this volume about the 
adapting of principles to local conditions.' Wherever 
the summer rainfall is sufficient to mature a crop, 



THE FALLOW YEAR 203 

fallowing for the purpose of storing moisture in ihe 
soil is unnecessary; the only value of the fallow 
year under such conditions would be to set free fer- 
tility. In the Great Plains area the rainfall is some- 
what higher than elsewhere in the dry-farm territory 
and most of it comes in sunnner; and the summer 
precipitation is probably enough in average years to 
mature crops, providing soil conditions are favorable. 
The main considerations, then, are to keep the soils 
open for the reception of water and to maintain the 
soils in a sufficiently fertile condition to produce, as 
explained in Chapter IX, plants with a minimum 
amount of water. This is accomplished very largely 
by the year of hoed crop, when the soil is as well 
stirred as under a clean fallow. 

The dry- farmer nmst never forget that the critical 
element in dry-farming is water and that the annual 
rainfall will in the very nature of things vary from 
year to year, with the result that the dry year, or the 
year with a precipitation below the average, is sure to 
come. In somewhat wet years the moisture stored 
in the soil is of comparatively little consequence, but 
in a year of drouth it will be the main dependence of 
the farmer. Now, whether a crop be hoed or not, it 
requires water for its growth, and land which is con- 
tinuously cropped even with a variety of crops is 
likely to be so largely depleted of its moisture that, 
when the year of drouth comes, failure will probably 
result. 



204 DRY-FARMING 

The precariousness of dry-farming must be done 
away with. The year of drouth must be expected 
every year. Only as certainty of crop yield is as- 
sured will dry-farming rise to a respected place by the 
side of other branches of agriculture. To attain such 
certainty and respect clean summer fallowing every 
second, third, or fourth year, according to the average 
rainfall, is probably indispensable; and future in- 
vestigations, long enough continued, will doubtless 
confirm this prediction. Undoubtedly, a rotation of 
crops, including hoed crops, will find an important 
place in dry-farming, but probably not to the com- 
plete exclusion of the clean summer fallow. 

Jethro Tull, two hundred years ago, discovered 
that thorough tillage of the soil gave crops that in 
some cases could not be produced by the addition of 
manure, and he came to the erroneous conclusion that 
^^ tillage is manure." In recent days we have learned 
the value of tillage in conserving moisture and in 
enabling plants to reach maturity with the least 
amount of water^ and we may be tempted to believe 
that ^'tillage is moisture." This, like Tull's state- 
ment, is a fallacy and must be avoided. Tillage can 
take the place of moisture only to a limited degree. 
Water is the essential consideration in dry-farming, 
else there would be no dry-farming. 



CHAPTER XI 



SOWING AND HARVESTING 



The careful application of the principles of soil 
treatment discussed in the preceding chapters will 
leave the soil in good condition for sowing, either in 
the fall or spring. Nevertheless, though proper dry- 
farming insures a first-class seed-bed, the problem of 
sowing is one of the most difficult in the successful 
production of crops without irrigation. This is 
chiefly due to the difficulty of choosing, under some- 
what rainless conditions, a time for sowing that will 
insure rapid and complete germination and the es- 
tablishment of a root S3^stem capable of producing 
good plants. In some respects fewer definite, reliable 
principles can be laid down concerning sowing than 
any other principle of important application in the 
practice of dry-farming. The experience of the last 
fifteen years has taught that the occasional failures 
to which even good dry-farmers have been subjected 
have been caused almost wholly by uncontrollable 
unfavorable conditions prevailing at the time of 
sowing. 

Conditions of germination 

Three conditions determine germination: (1) heat, 
(2) oxygen, and (3) water. Unless these three con- 

205 



206 



DRY-FARMING 



ditions are all favorable, seeds cannot germinate 
properly. The first requisite for successful seed 
germination is a proper degree of heat. For every 
kind of seed there is a temperature below which 
germination does not occur ; another, above which it 
does not occur, and another, the best, at which, pro- 
viding the other factors are favorable, germination 
will go on most rapidly. The following table, con- 
structed by Goodale, shows the latest, highest, and 
best germination temperatures for wheat, barley, and 
corn. Other seeds germinate approximately within 
the same ranges of temperature: — 

Germination Temperatures (Degrees Fahrenheit). 





Lowest 


Highest 


Best 


Wheat 


41 


108 


84 


Barley 


41 


100 


84 


Corn 


49 


115 


91 



Germination occurs within the considerable range 
between the highest and lowest temperatures of this 
table, though the rapidity of germination decreases 
as the temperature recedes from the best. This ex- 
plains the early spring and late fall germination when 
the temperature is comparatively low. If the tem- 
perature falls below the lowest required for germina- 
tion, dry seeds are not injured, and even a tempera- 
ture far below the freezing point of water will not 



CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION 207 

affect seeds unfavorably if they are not too moist. 
The warmth of the soil, essential to germination, can- 
not well be controlled by the farmer; and planting 
must, therefore, be done in seasons when, from past 
experience, it is probable that the temperature is and 
will remain in the neighborhood of the best degree 
for germination. More heat is required to raise the 
temperature of wet soils ; therefore, seeds will gener- 
ally germinate more slowly in wet than in dry soils, as 
is illustrated in the rapid germination often observed 
in well-tilled dry-farm soils. Consequently, it is 
safer at a low temperature to sow in dry soils than 
in wet ones. Dark soils absorb heat more rapidly 
than lighter colored ones, and under the same condi- 
tions of temperature germination is therefore more 
likely to go on rapidly in dark colored soils. Over 
the dry-farm territory the soils are generally light 
colored, which would tend to delay germination. 
The incorporation of organic matter with the soil, 
which tends to darken the soil, has a slight though 
important bearing on germination as well as on the 
general fertility of the soil, and should be made an 
important dry-farm practice. Meanwhile, the tem- 
perature of the soil depends almost wholly upon the 
prevailing temperature conditions in the district and 
is not to any material degree under the control of the 
farmer. 

A sufficient supply of oxygen in the soil is indis- 
pensable to germination. Oxygen, as is well known, 



208 DRY-FARMING 

forms about one fifth of the atmosphere and is the 
active principle in combustion and in the changes in 
the animal body occasioned by respiration. Oxygen 
should be present in the soil air in approximately the 
proportion in which it is found in the atmosphere. 
Germination is hindered by a larger or smaller pro- 
portion than is found in the atmosphere. The soil 
must be in such a condition that the air can easily 
enter or leave the upper soil layer ; that is, the soil 
must be somewhat loose. In order that the seeds 
may have access to the necessary oxygen, then, sow- 
ing should not be done in wet or packed soils, nor 
should the sowing implements be such as to press the 
soil too closely around the seeds. Well-fallowed soil 
is in an ideal condition for admitting oxygen. 

If the temperature is right, germination begins by 
the forcible absorption of water by the seed from the 
surrounding soil. The force of this absorption is 
very great, ranging from four hundred to five hun- 
dred pounds per square inch, and continues until the 
seed is completely saturated. The great vigor with 
which water is thus absorbed from the soil explains 
how seeds are able to secure the necessary water 
from the thin water film surrounding the soil grains. 
The following table, based upon numerous investiga- 
tions conducted in Germany and in Utah, shows the 
maximum percentages of water contained by seeds 
when the absorption is complete. These quantities 
are reached only when water is easily accessible : — 



WATER AND GERMINATION 



209 



Percentage of Water contained by Seeds at 
Saturation 




Rye . 

Wheat 

Oats . 

Barley 

Corn 

Peas . 

Beans 

Lucern 



Germination itself does not go on freely until this 
maximum saturation has been reached. Therefore, 
if the moisture in the soil is low, the absorption of 
water is made difficult and germination is retarded. 
This shows itself in a decreased percentage of ger- 
mination. The effect upon germination of the per- 
centage of water in the soil is well shown by some of 
the Utah experiments, as follows : — 

Effect of Varying Amounts of Water on Percentage of 

Germination ' 



Per Cent Water in Soil . . 


7.5 


10 


12.5 


15 


17.5 


30 


22.5 


25 


Wheat in Sandy Loam 


0.0 


98 


94.Q 


86 


82.0 


82 


82.0 


6 


Wheat in Clay 


30.0 


48 


84.0 


94 


84.0 


82 


86.0 


58 


Beans in Sandy Loam . . 


0.0 





20.0 


46 


66.0 


18 


8.0 


9 


Beans in Clay 


0.0 





6.0 


20 


22.0 


32 


30.0 


36 


Lucern in Sandy Loam . . 


0.0 


18 


68.0 


54 


54.0 


8 


8.0 


9 


Lucern in Clay 


8.0 


8 


54.0 


48 


50.0 


32 


14.9 


14 



210 DRY-FARMING 

In a sandy soil a small percentage of water will cause 
better germination than in a clay soil. While dif- 
ferent seeds vary in their power to abstract water 
from soilS; yet it seems that for the majority of plants, 
the best percentage of soil-water for germination 
purposes is that which is in the neighborhood of the 
maximum field capacity of soils for water, as explained 
in Chapter VII. Bogdanoff has estimated that the 
best amount of water in the soil for germination pur- 
poses is about twice the maximum percentage of hy- 
groscopic water. This would not be far from the 
field- water capacity as described in the preceding 
chapter. 

During the absorption of water, seeds swell consid- 
erably, in many cases from two to three times their 
normal size. This has the very desirable effect of 
crowding the seed walls against the soil particles and 
thus, by establishing more points of contact, en- 
abling the seed to absorb moisture with greater 
facility. As seeds begin to absorb water, heat is also 
produced. In many cases the temperature sur- 
rounding the seeds is increased one degree on the 
Centigrade scale b}^ the mere process of water ab- 
sorption. This favors rapid germination. More- 
over, the fertility of the soil has a direct influence 
upon germination. In fertile soils the germination 
is more rapid and more complete than in infertile 
soils. Especially active in favoring direct germina- 
tion are the nitrates. When it is recalled that the 



212 DRY-FARMING 

constant cultivation and well-kept summer fallow 
of dry-farming develop large quantities of nitrates in 
the soil, it will be understood that the methods of 
dry-farming as already outlined accelerate germina- 
tion very greatly. 

It scarcely need be said that the soil of the seed- 
bed should be fine, mellow, and uniform in physical 
texture so that the seeds can be planted evenly 
and in close contact with the soil particles. All the 
requisite conditions for germination are best met by 
the conditions prevailing in a well-kept summer 
fallowed soil. 

Time to sow 

In the consideration of the time to sow, the first 
question to be disposed of by the dry-farmer is that 
of fall as against spring sowing. The small grains 
occur as fall and spring varieties, and it is vitally im- 
portant to determine which season, under dry-farm 
conditions, is the best for sowing. 

The advantages of fall sowing are many. As 
stated, successful germination is favored by the 
presence of an abundance of fertility, especially of 
nitrates, in the soil. In summer-fallowed land 
nitrates are always found in abundance in the fall, 
ready to stimulate the seed into rapid germination 
and the young plants into vigorous growth. During 
the late fall and winter months the nitrates disap- 
pear, at least in part, and from the point of view of 



214 DRY-FARMING 

fertility the spring is not so desirable as the fall for 
germination. More important, grain sown in the 
fall under favorable conditions will establish a good 
root system which is ready for use and in action in 
the early spring as soon as the temperature is right 
and long before the farmer can go out on the ground 
with his implements. As a result, the crop has the 
use of the early spring moisture, which under the 
conditions of spring sowing is evaporated into the air. 
Where the natural precipitation is light and the 
amount of water stored in the soil is not large, the 
gain resulting from the use of the early spring mois- 
ture often decides the question in favor of fall 
sowing. 

The disadvantages of fall sowing are also many. 
The uncertainty of the fall rains must first be con- 
sidered. In ordinary practice, seed sown in the fall 
does not germinate until a rain comes, unless indeed 
sowing is done immediately after a rain. The fall 
rains are uncertain as to quantity. In many cases 
they are so light that they suffice only to start ger- 
mination and not to complete it and give the plants 
the proper start. Such incomplete germination fre- 
quently causes the total loss of the crop. Even if the 
stand of the fall crop is satisfactory, there is always 
the danger of winter-killing to be reckoned with. 
The real cause of winter-killing is not yet clearly 
understood, though it seems that repeated thawing 
and freezing, drying winter winds, accompanied by 



FALL SOWING 215 

dry cold or protracted periods of intense cold, destroy 
the vitality of the seed and young root system. Con- 
tinuous but moderate cold is not ordinarily very 
injurious. The liability to winter-killing is, there- 
fore, very nmch greater wherever the winters sliv 
open than in places where the snow covers the ground 
the larger part of the winter. It is also to be kept in 
mind that some varieties are very resistant to winter- 
killing, while others require well-covered winters. 
Fall sowing is preferable wherever the bulk of the 
precipitation comes in winter and spring and where 
the winters are covered for some time with snow and 
the summers are dry. Under such conditions it is 
very important that the crop make use of the mois- 
ture stored in the soil in the early spring. Wherever 
the precipitation comes largely in late spring and 
summer, the arguments in favor of fall sowing are 
not so strong, and in such localities spring sowing is 
often more desirable than fall sowing. In the Great 
Plains district, therefore, spring sowing is usually 
recommended, though fall-sown crops nearly alw^ays, 
even there, yield the larger crops. In the inter- 
mountain states, with wet winters and dry summers, 
fall sowing has almost wholly replaced si)ring sowing. 
In fact, Farrell reports that upon the Nephi (Utah) 
substation the average of six years shows about 
twenty bushels of wheat from fall-sown seed as against 
about thirteen bushels from spring-sown seed. Under 
the California climate, with wet winters and a winter 



216 DRY-FARMING 

temperature high enough for plant growth, fall sow- 
ing is also a general practice. Wherever the condi- 
tions are favorable, fall sowing should be practiced, 
for it is in harmony with the best principles of water 
conservation. Even in districts where the precipita- 
tion comes chiefly in the summer, it may be found 
that fall sowing, after all, is preferable. 

The right time to sow in the fall can be fixed only 
with great difficulty, for so much depends upon the 
climatic conditions. In fact the practice varies in 
accordance with differences in fall precipitation 
and early fall frosts. Where numerous fall rains 
maintain the soil in a fairly moist condition and the 
temperature is not too low, the problem is compara- 
tively simple. In such districts, for latitudes repre- 
sented by the dry-farm sections of the United 
States, a good time for fall planting is ordinarily 
from the first of September to the middle of October. 
If sown much earlier in such districts, the growth is 
likely to be too rank and subject to dangerous injury 
by frosts, and as suggested by Farrell the very large 
development of the root system in the fall may 
cause, the following summer, a dangerously large 
growth of foliage; that is, the crop may run to 
straw at the expense of the grain. If sown much 
later, the chances are that the crop will not possess 
sufficient vitality to withstand the cold of late fall 
and winter. In localities where the late summer and 
the early fall are rainless, it is much more difficult to 



FALL SOWING 217 

lay down a definite rule covering the time of fall 
sowing. The dry-farmers in such places usually 
sow at any convenient time in the hope that an early 
rain will start the process of germination and growth. 
In other cases planting is delayed until the arrival 
of the first fall rain. This is an uncertain and usually 
unsatisfactory practice, since it often happens that 
the sowing is delayed until too late in the fall for the 
best results. 

In districts of dry late summer and fall, the great- 
est danger in depending upon the fall rains for ger- 
mination lies in the fact that the precipitation is 
often so small that it initiates germination without 
being sufficient to complete it. This means that 
when the seed is well started in germination, the 
moisture gives out. When another slight rain comes 
a little later, germination is again started and pos- 
sibly again stopped. In some seasons this may occur 
several times, to the permanent injury of the crop. 
Dry-farmers try to provide against this danger by 
using an unusually large amount of seed, assuming 
that a certain amount will fail to come up because 
of the repeated partial germinations. A number of 
investigators have demonstrated that a seed may 
start to germinate, then be dried, and again be started 
to germinate several times in succession without 
wholly destroying the vitality of the seed. Novvoc- 
zek has conducted a number of experiments on this 
subject, with the following results: — 



218 



DRY-FARMING 



Effect of Repeated Drying on Percentage of 
Germination 





First Ger- 
mination 


Third Ger- 
mination 


Fifth Ger- 
mination 


Seventh 
Germina- 
tion 


Wheat . . . 


75 


57 


25 


1 


Barley . . . 


85 


74 


33 


4 


Oats . . . 


90 


77 


40 


8 


Corn . . . 


98 


66 


3 





Peas . . . 


87 


3 









In these experiments wheat and other seeds were 
allowed to germinate and dry seven times in succes- 
sion. With each partial germination the percentage of 
total germination decreased until at the seventh ger- 
mination only a few seeds of wheat, barley, and oats 
retained their power. This, however, is practically 
the condition in dr3^-farm districts with rainless 
summers and falls, where fall seeding is practiced. 
In such localities little dependence should be placed 
on the fall rains and greater reliance placed on a 
method of soil treatment that will insure good ger- 
mination. For this purpose the summer fallow has 
been demonstrated to be the most desirable practice. 
If the soil has been treated according to the prin- 
ciples laid down in earlier chapters, the fallowed land 
will, in the fall, contain a sufficient amount of mois- 
ture to produce complete germination though no 
rains may fall. Under such conditions the main 
consideration is to plant the seed so deep that it may 




Fig. 52. Cultivating oats with seeder. Wyuiiiiiig Stati- Dr\'-Farm, 

Cheyenne. 



220 DRY-FARMING 

draw freely upon the stored soil-moisture. This 
method makes fall germination sure in districts 
where the natural precipitation is not to be depended 
upon. 

When sowing is done in the spring, there are few 
factors to consider. Whenever the temperature is 
right and the soil has dried out sufficiently so that 
agricultural implements may be used properly, it is 
usually safe to begin sowing. The customs which 
prevail generally with regard to the time of spring 
sowing may be adopted in dry-farm practices also. 

Depth of seeding 

The depth to which seed should be planted in the 
soil is of importance in a system of dry-farming. 
The reserve materials in seeds are used to produce 
the first roots and the young plants. No new nutri- 
ment beyond that stored in the soil can be obtained 
by the plant until the leaves are above the ground, 
able to gather carbon from the atmosphere. The 
danger of deep planting lies, therefore, in exhausting 
the reserve materials of the seeds before the plant 
has been able to push its leaves above the ground. 
Should this occur, the plant will probably die in the 
soil. On the other hand, if the seed is not planted 
deeply enough, it may happen that the roots cannot 
be sent down far enough to connect with the soil- 
water reservoir below. Then, the root system will 



DEPTH OF SOWING 221 

not be strong and deep, but will have to depend for 
its development upon the surface water, which is 
always a dangerous practice in dry-farming. The 
rule as to the depth of seeding is simply : Plant as 
deeply as is safe. The depth to which seeds may be 
safely placed depends upon the nature of the soil, its 
fertility, its physical condition, and the water that 
it contains. In sandy soils, planting may be deeper 
than in clay soils, for it requires less energy for a 
plant to push roots, stems, and leaves through the 
loose sandy soil than through the more compact clay 
soil; in a dry soil planting may be deeper than in 
wet soils; likewise, deep planting is safer in a loose 
soil than in one firmly compacted ; finally, where the 
moist soil is considerable distance below the surface, 
deeper planting may be practiced than when the 
moist soil is near the surface. Countless experiments 
have been conducted on the subject of depth of seed- 
ing. In a few cases, ordinary agricultural seeds 
planted eight inches deep have come up and pro- 
duced satisfactory plants. However, the consensus 
of opinion is that from one to three inches are best in 
humid districts, but that, everything considered, four 
inches is the best depth under dry-farm conditions. 
Under a low natural precipitation, where the methods 
of dry-farming are practiced, it is always safe to 
plant deeply, for such a practice will develop and 
strengthen the root system, which is one big step 
toward successful dry-farming. 



222 DRY-FARMING 

Quantity to sow 

Numerous dry-farm failures may be charged 
wholly to ignorance concerning the quantity of seed 
to sow. In no other practice has the custom of 
humid countries been followed more religiously by 
dry-farmers, and failure has nearly always resulted. 
The discussions in this volume have brought out the 
fact that every plant of whatever character requires 
a large amount of water for its growth. From the 
first day of its growth to the day of its maturity, 
large amounts of water are taken from the soil 
through the plant and evaporated into the air 
through the leaves. When the large quantities of 
seed employed in humid countries have been sown 
on dry lands, the result has usually been an excellent 
stand early in the season, with a crop splendid in 
appearance up to early summer. A luxuriant spring 
crop reduces, however, the water content of the soil 
so greatly that when the heat of the summer arrives, 
there is not sufficient water left in the soil to support 
the final development and ripening. A thick stand 
in early spring is no assurance to the dry-farmer of 
a good harvest. On the contrary, it is usually the 
field with a thin stand in spring that stands up best 
through the summer and yields most at the time of 
harvest. The quantity of seed sown should vary with 
the soil conditions: the more fertile the soil is, the 
more seed may be used; the more water in the soil, 



QUANTITY OF SEED 223 

the more seed may be sown; as the fertihty or the 
water content diminishes, the amount of seed should 
Hkewise be diminished. Under dry-farm conditions 
the fertihty is good, but the moisture is low. As a 
general principle, therefore, light seeding should be 
practiced on dry-farms, though it should be sufficient 
to yield a crop that will shade the ground well. If 
the sowing is done early, in fall or spring, less seed 
may be used than if the sowing is late, because the 
early sowing gives a better chance for root develop- 
ment, which results, ordinarily, in more vigorous 
plants that consume more moisture than the smaller 
and weaker plants of later sowing. If the winters 
are mild and well covered with snow, less seed may 
be used than in districts where severe or open winters 
cause a certain amount of winter-killing. On a good 
seed-bed of fallowed soil less seed may be used than 
where the soil has not been carefully tilled and is 
somewhat rough and lumpy and unfavorable for 
complete germination. The yield of any crop is not 
directly proportional to the amount sown, unless all 
factors contributing to germination are alike. In 
the case of wheat and other grains, thin seeding also 
gives a plant a better chance for stooling, which is 
Nature's method of adapting the plant to the pre- 
vailing moisture and fertility conditions. When 
plants are crowded, stooling cannot occur to any 
marked degree, and the crop is rendered helpless in 
attempts to adapt itself to surrounding conditions. 



224 DRY-FARMING 

In general the rule may be laid down that a little 
more than one half as much seed should be used in 
dry-farm districts with an annual rainfall of about 
fifteen inches than is used in humid districts. That 
is, as against the customary five pecks of wheat used 
per acre in humid countries about three pecks or even 
two pecks should be used on dry-farms. Merrill 
recommends the seeding of oats at the rate of about 
three pecks per acre; of barley^ about three pecks; 
of rye, two pecks; of alfalfa, six pounds; of corn, 
two kernels to the hill, and other crops in the same 
proportion. No invariable rule can be laid down 
for perfect germination. A small quantity of seed is 
usually sufficient ; but w^here germination frequently 
fails in part, more seed must be used. If the stand 
is too thick at the beginning of the growing season, 
it must be harrowed out. Naturally, the quantity of 
seed to be used should be based on the number of 
kernels as well as on the weight. For instance, since 
the larger the individual wheat kernels the fewer in a 
bushel, fewer plants would be produced from a bushel 
of large than from a bushel of small seed wheat. 
The size of the seed in determining the amount for 
sowing is often important and should be determined 
by some simple method, such as counting the seeds 
required to fill a small bottle. 



SOWING AND HARVESTING 225 

Method of sowing 

There should really be no need of discussing the 
method of sowing were it not that even at this day 
there are farmers in the dry-farm district who sow 
by broadcasting and insist upon the superiority of 
this method. The broadcasting of seed has no place 
in any system of scientific agriculture, least of all in 
dry-farming, where success depends upon the degree 
with which all conditions are controlled. In all good 
dry-farm practice seed should be placed in rows, 
preferably by means of one of the numerous forms of 
drill seeders found upon the market. The advan- 
tages of the drill are almost self-evident. It permits 
uniform distribution of the seed, which is indispens- 
able for success on soils that receive a limited rainfall. 
The seed may be placed at an even depth, which is 
very necessary, especially in fall sowing, where the 
seed depends for proper germination upon the mois- 
ture already stored in the soil. The deep seeding 
often necessary under dry-farm conditions makes 
the drill indispensable. Moreover, Hunt has ex- 
plained that the drill furrows themselves have defi- 
nite advantages. During the winter the furrows 
catch the snow, and because of the protection thus 
rendered, the seed is less likely to be heaved out by 
repeated freezing and thawing. The drill furrow also 
protects to a certain extent against the drying action 
of winds and in that way, though the furrows are 



226 DRY-FARMING 

small, they aid materially in enabling the young plane 
to pass through the winter successfully. The rains 
of fall and spring are accumulated in the furrows and 
made easily accessible to plants. Moreover, many 
of the drills have attachments whereby the soil is 
pressed around the seed and the topsoil afterwards 
stirred to prevent evaporation. This permits of a 
much more rapid and complete germination. The 
drill, the advantages of which were taught two hun- 
dred years ago by Jethro Tull, is one of the most 
valuable implements of modern agriculture. On 
dry-farms it is indispensable. The dry- farmer should 
make a careful study of the drills on the market and 
choose such as comply with the principles of the 
successful prosecution of dry-farming. Drill culture 
is the only method of sowing that can be permitted 
if uniform success is desired. 

The care of the crop 

Excepting the special treatment for soil-moisture 
conservation, dry- farm crops should receive the 
treatment usually given crops growing under humid 
conditions. The light rains that frequently fall in 
autumn sometimes form a crust on the top of the soil, 
which hinders the proper germination and growth 
of the fall-sown crop. It may be necessary, therefore, 
for the farmer to go over the land in the fall with a 
disk or more preferably with a corrugated roller. 



CROP TREATMENT 227 

Ordinarily, however, after fall sowing there is no 
further need of treatment until the following spring. 
The spring treatment is of considerably more im- 
portance, for when the warmth of spring and early 
summer begins to make itself felt, a crust forms over 
many kinds of dry-farm soils. This is especially true 
where the soil is of the distinctively arid kind and 
poor in organic matter. Such a crust should be 
broken early in order to give the young plants a 
chance to develop freely. This may be accomplished, 
as above stated, by the use of a disk, corrugated 
roller, or ordinary smoothing harrow. 

When the young grain is well under way, it may be 
found to be too thick. If so, the crop may be 
thinned by going over the field with a good iron- 
tooth harrow with the teeth so set as to tear out a 
portion of the plants. This treatment may enable 
the remaining plants to mature with the limited 
amount of moisture in the soil. Paradoxically, if 
the crop seems to be too thin in the spring, harrowing 
may also be of service. In such a case the teeth 
should be slanted backwards and the harrowing done 
simply for the purpose of stirring the soil without 
injury to the plant, to conserve the moisture stored 
in the soil and to accelerate the formation of nitrates. 
The conserved moisture and added fertility will 
strengthen the growth and diminish the water re- 
quirements of the plants, and thus yield a larger crop. 
The iron-tooth harrow is a very useful implement 



228 DRY-FARMING 

on the dry-farm when the crops are young. After 
the plants are up so high that the harrow cannot be 
used on them no special care need be given them, 
unless indeed they are cultivated crops like corn or 
potatoes which, of course, as explained in previous 
chapters, should receive continual cultivation. 

Harvesting 

The methods of harvesting crops on dry-farms are 
practically those for farms in humid districts. The 
one great exception may be the use of the header 
on the grain farms of the dry-farm sections. The 
header has now become well-nigh general in its use. 
Instead of cutting and binding the grain, as in the old 
method, the heads are simply cut off and piled in 
large stacks which later are threshed. The high 
straw which remains is plowed under in the fall and 
helps to supply the soil with organic matter. The 
maintenance of dry-farms for over a generation 
without the addition of manures has been made pos- 
sible by the organic matter added to the soil in the 
decay of the high vigorous straw remaining after the 
header. In fact, the changes occurring in the soil in 
connection with the decaying of the header stubble 
appear to have actually increased the available fer- 
tility. Hundreds of Utah dry wheat farms during 
the last ten or twelve years have increased in fertility, 
or- at least in productive power, due undoubtedly to 



230 DRY-FARMING 

the introduction of the header system of harvesting. 
This system of harvesting also makes the practice of 
fallowing much more effective, for it helps maintain 
the organic matter which is drawn upon by the fallow 
seasons. The header should be used wherever prac- 
ticable. The fear has been expressed that the high 
header straw plowed under will make the soil so 
loose as to render proper sowing difficult and also, 
because of the easy circulation of air in the upper 
soil layers, cause a large loss of soil-moisture. This 
fear has been found to be groundless, for wherever 
the header straw has been plowed under, especially 
in connection with fallowing, the soil has been bene- 
fited. 

Rapidity and economy in harvesting are vital fac- 
tors in dry-farming, and new devices are constantly 
being offered to expedite the work. Of recent years 
the combined harvester and thresher has come into 
general use. It is a large header combined with an 
ordinary threshing machine. The grain is headed 
and threshed in one operation and the sacks dropped 
along the path of the machine. The straw is scat- 
tered over the field where it belongs. 

All in all, the question of sowing, care of crop, and 
harvesting may be answered by the methods that 
have been so well developed in countries of abundant 
rainfall, except as new methods may be required to 
offset the deficiency in the rainfall which is the- deter- 
mining condition of dry-farming. 




Fig. 54. Dry-farm oat field. Utah. 



CHAPTER XII 



CROPS FOR DRY-FARMIxVG 



The work of the dry-farmer is only half done when 
the soil has been properly prepared, by deep plowing, 
cultivation, and fallowing, for the planting of the crop. 
The choice of the crop, its proper seeding, and its 
correct care and harvesting are as important as ra- 
tional soil treatment in the successful pursuit of 
dry-farming. It is true that in general the kinds 
of crops ordinarily cultivated in humid regions are 
grown also on arid lands, but varieties especially 
adapted to the prevailing dry-farm conditions must 
be used if any certainty of harvest is desired. Plants 
possess a marvelous power of adaptation to environ- 
ment, and this power becomes stronger as successive 
generations of plants are grown under the given con- 
ditions. Thus, plants which have been grown for 
long periods of time in countries of abundant rainfall 
and characteristic humid climate and soil yield well 
under such conditions, but usually suffer and die or 
at best yield scantily if planted in hot rainless coun- 
tries with deep soils. Yet, such plants, if grown year 
after year under arid conditions, become accustomed 
to warmth and dryness and in time will yield perhaps 
nearly as well or it may be better in their new sur- 
roundings. The dry-farmer who looks for large 

232 



CROPS FOR DRY-FARMING 233 

harvests must use every care to secure varieties of 
crops that through generations of breeding have be- 
come adapted to the conditions prevailing on his 
farm. Home-grown seeds, if grown properly, are 
therefore of the highest value. In fact, in the dis- 
tricts where dry-farming has been practiced longest 
the best yielding varieties are, with very few excep- 
tions, those that have been grown for many succes- 
sive years on the same lands. The comparative 
newness of the attempts to produce profitable crops 
in the present dry-farming territory and the conse- 
quent absence of home-grown seed has rendered it 
wise to explore other regions of the world, with similar 
cHmatic conditions, but long inhabited, for suitable 
crop varieties. The United States Department of 
Agriculture has accomplished much good work in 
this direction. The breeding of new varieties by 
scientific methods is also important, though really 
valuable results cannot be expected for many years 
to come. When results do come from breeding ex- 
periments, they will probably be of the greatest value 
to the dry- farmer. Meanwhile, it must be acknowl- 
edged that at the present, our knowledge of dry- 
farm crops is extremely limited. Every year will 
probably bring new additions to the list and great 
improvements of the crops and varieties now recom- 
mended. The progressive dr3^-farmer should there- 
fore keep in close touch with state and government 
workers concerning the best varieties to use. 



234 DRY-FARMING 

Moreover, while the various sections of the dr}^- 
farmins: territory are ahke in receiving a small amount 
of rainfall, theyare widely different in other conditions 
affecting plant growth, such as soils, winds, average 
temperature, and character and severity of the win- 
ters. Until trials have been made in all these varving 
localities, it is not safe to make unqualified recom- 
mendations of anv crop or crop variety. At the 
present we can only sa}' that for dry-farm purposes 
we must have plants that will produce the maximum 
quantity of dry matter with the minimum quantity 
of water: and that their periods of growth must be 
the shortest possible. However, enough work has 
been done to establish some general rules for the 
guidance of the dr^^-farmer in the selection of crops. 
Undoubtedl}', we have as yet had onlv a glimpse of 
the vast crop possibilities of the dr3'-farming territory 
in the United States, as well as in other countries. 

Wlieat 

Wlieat is the leading dry-farm crop. Ever}^ pros- 
pect indicates that it will retain its preeminence. 
Xot only is it the most generally used cereal, but the 
world is rapidly learning to depend more and more 
upon the dr^'-farming areas of the world for wheat 
production. In the arid and semiarid regions it is 
now a connnonly accepted doctrine that upon the 
expensive irrigated lands should be grown fruits, 




•"^^ 




r/. 









M 



-a 

T5 












.^ r^Sai? 



236 DRY-FARMING 

vegetables, sugar beets, and other intensive crops, 
while wheat, corn, and other grains and even much 
of the forage should be grown as extensive crops 
upon the non-irrigated or dry-farm lands. It is to 
be hoped that the time is near at hand when it will 
be a rarity to see grain grown upon irrigated soil, pro- 
viding the climatic conditions permit the raising of 
more extensive crops. 

In view of the present and future greatness of the 
wheat crop on semiarid lands, it is very important 
to secure the varieties that will best meet the varying 
dry-farm conditions. Much has been done to this 
end, but more needs to be done. Our knowledge of 
the best wheats is still fragmentary. This is even 
more true of other dry-farm crops. According to 
Jardine, the dry-farm wheats grown at present in the 
United States may be classified as follows : — 

I. Hard spring wheats : 
(a) Common 
(h) Durum 
II. Winter wheats : 

(a) Hard wheats (Crimean) 

(6) Semihard wheats (Intermountain) 

(c) Soft wheats (Pacific) 

The common varieties of hard spring wheats are 
grown principally in districts where winter wheats 
have not as yet been successful; that is, in the 
Dakotas, northwestern Nebraska, and other localities 
with long winters and periods of alternate thawing 



WHEAT FOR DRY-FARMING 237 

and severe freezing. The superior value of winter 
wheat has been so clearly demonstrated that at- 
tempts are being made to develop in every locality 
winter wheats that can endure the prevailing cli- 
matic conditions. Sj^ring wheats are also grown in a 
scattering way and in small quantities over the whole 
dry-farm territory. The two most valuable varie- 
ties of the common hard spring wheat are Blue Stem 
and Red Fife, both well-established varieties of ex- 
cellent milling qualities, grown in immense quanti- 
ties in the Northeastern corner of the dry-farm ter- 
ritory of the United States and commanding the 
best prices on the markets of the world. It is nota- 
ble that Red Fife originated in Russia, the country 
which has given us so many good dry-farm crops. 

The durum wheats or macaroni wheats, as they are 
often called, are also spring wheats, which promise to 
displace all other spring varieties because of their 
excellent yields under extreme dry-farm conditions. 
These wheats, though known for more than a genera- 
tion through occasional shipments from Russia, 
Algeria, and Chile, were introduced to the farmers of 
the United States only in 1900, through the explora- 
tions and enthusiastic advocacy of Carleton of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. Since 
that time they have been grown in nearly all the dry- 
farm states and especially in the Great Plains area. 
Wherever tried they have yielded well, in some 
cases as much as the old established winter varieties. 



238 DRY-FARMING 

The extreme hardness of these wheats made it diffi- 
cult to induce the millers operating mills fitted for 
grinding softer wheats to accept them for flour- 
making purposes. This prejudice has^ however, 
gradually vanished, and to-day the durum wheats are 
in great demand, especially for blending with the 
softer wheats and for the making of macaroni. Re- 
cently the popularity of the durum wheats among 
the farmers has been enhanced, owing to the dis- 
covery that they are strongly rust resistant. (See 
Fig. 61.) 

The winter wheats, as has been repeatedly sug- 
gested in preceding chapters, are most desirable for 
dry-farm purposes, wherever they can be grown, and 
especially in localities where a fair precipitation oc- 
curs in the winter and spring. The hard winter 
wheats are represented mainly by the Crimean group, 
the chief members of which are Turkey, Kharkow, 
and Crimean. These wheats also originated in 
Russia and are said to have been brought to the 
United States a generation ago by Mennonite colo- 
nists. At present these wheats are grown chiefly in 
the central and southern parts of the Great Plains 
area and in Canada, though they are rapidly spreading 
over the intermountain country. These are good 
milling wheats of high gluten content and yielding 
abundantly under dry-farm conditions. It is quite 
clear that these wheats will soon displace the older 
winter wheats formerl}^ grown on dry-farms. Turkey 



WHEAT FOR DRY-FARMING 



239 



wheat 

wheat. 

The 



promises to become the leading dry-farm 
(See Figs. 56, 62.) 
semisoft winter wheats are grown chiefly in 



the intermountain country. They are represented 




Fig. 56. Dry-farm Turkey wheat, Fergus Co., Montana. Yield 62 bushels 
per acre. This is perhaps the best variety of dry-farm wheat known 
to-day. 

by a very large number of varieties, all tending to- 
ward softness and starchiness. This may in part be 
due to climatic, soil, and irrigation conditions, but is 
more likely a result of inherent qualities in the varie- 



240 DRY-FARMING 

ties used. They are rapidly being displaced by the 
hard varieties. 

The group of soft winter wheats includes numerous 
varieties grown extensively in the famous wheat 
districts of California^ Oregon, Washington, and 
northern Idaho. The main varieties are Red Russian 
and Palouse Blue Stem, in Washington and Idaho; 
Red Chaff and Foise in Oregon, and Defiance, Little 
Club, Sonora, and Wiite Australian in California. 
These are all soft, white, and rather poor in gluten. 
It is believed that under given climatic, soil, and cul- 
tural conditions, all wheat varieties will approach 
one type, distinctive of the conditions in question, 
and that the California wheat type is a result of pre- 
vailing unchangeable conditions. More research is 
needed, however, before definite principles can be laid 
down concerning the formation of distinctive wheat 
types in the various dry-farm sections. Under any 
condition, a change of seed, keeping improvement 
always in view, should be beneficial. 

Jardine has reminded the dry-farmers of the United 
States that before the production of wheat on the 
dry-farms can reach its full possibilities under any 
acreage, sufficient quantities must be grown of a few 
varieties to affect the large markets. This is espe- 
cially important in the intermountain country where 
no uniformity exists, but the warning should be 
heeded also by the Pacific coast and Great Plains 
wheat areas. As soon as the best varieties are found 



SMALL GRAINS FOR DRY-FARMING 241 

they should displace the miscellaneous collection of 
wheat varieties now grown. The individual farmer 
can be a law unto himself no more in wheat growing 
than in fruit growing, if he desires to reap the largest 
reward of his efforts. Only by uniformity of kind 
and quality and large production will any one locality 
impress itself upon the markets and create a demand. 
The changes now in progress by the dry-farmers of 
the United States indicate that this lesson has been 
taken to heart. The principle is equally important 
for all countries where dry-farming is practiced. 

Other small grains 

Oats is undoubtedly a coming dry-farm crop. 
Several varieties have been found which yield well 
on lands that receive an average annual rainfall of 
less than fifteen inches. Others will no doubt be 
discovered or developed as special attention is given 
to dry-farm oats. Oats occurs as spring and winter 
varieties, but only one winter variety has as yet 
found place in the list of dry-farm crops. The leading 
spring varieties of oats are the Sixty-Day, Kherson, 
Burt, and Swedish Select. The one winter variety, 
which is grown chiefly in Utah, is the Boswell, a 
black variety originally brought from England about 
1901. 

Barley, like the other common grains, occurs in 
varieties that grow well on dry-farms. In compari- 



242 DRY-FARMING 

son with wheat very httle search has been made for 
dry-farm barleys, and, naturally, the list of tested 
varieties is very small. Like wheat and oats, barley 
occurs in spring and winter varieties, but as in the 




^ Fig. 57. Dry-farm barley field, Washoe Co., Nevada. 

case of oats only one winter variety has as yet found 
its way into the approved list of dry- farm crops. 
The best dry-farm spring barleys are those belonging 
to the beardless and hull-less types, though the more 
common varieties also yield well, especially the six- 
rowed beardless barley. The winter variety is the 



CROPS FOR DRY-FARMING 243 

Tennessee Winter, which is ah'eady well distributed 
over the Great Plains district. 

Rye is one of the surest dry-farm crops. It yields 
good crops of straw and grain, both of which are valu- 
able stock foods. In fact, the great power of rye to 
survive and grow luxuriantly under the most trying 
dry-farm conditions is the chief objection to it. Once 
started, it is hard to eradicate. Properly cultivated 
and used either as a stock feed or as green manure, 
it is very valuable. Rye occurs as both spring and 
Vv^inter varieties. The winter varieties are usually 
most satisfactory. 

Carleton has recommended Emmer as a crop pecu- 
liarly adapted to semiarid conditions. Emmer is 
a species of wheat to the berries of which the chaff 
adheres very closely. It is highly prized as a stock 
feed. In Russia and Germany it is grown in very 
large quantities. It is especially adapted to arid and 
semiarid conditions, but will probably thrive best 
where the winters are dry and summers wet. It 
exists as spring and winter varieties. As with the 
other small grains, the success of emmer will depend 
largely upon the satisfactory development of winter 
varieties. 

Corn 

Of all crops yet tried on dry-farms, corn is perhaps 
the most uniformly successful under extreme dry 
conditions. If the soil treatment and planting have 



244 DRY-FARMING 

been right, the failures that have been reported may 
invariably be traced to the use of seed which had not 
been acclimated. The American Indians grow corn 
which is excellent for dry-farm purposes; many of 
the western farmers have likewise produced strains 
that use the minimum of moisture, and, moreover, 
corn brought from humid sections adapts itself to 
arid conditions in a very few years. Escobar reports 
a native corn grown in Mexico with low stalks and 
small ears that well endures desert conditions. In 
extremely dry years corn does not always produce a 
profitable crop of seed, but the crop as a whole, for 
forage purposes, seldom fails to pay expenses and 
leave a margin for profit. In wetter years there is a 
corresponding increase of the corn crop. The dry- 
farming territory does not yet realize the value of 
corn as a dry-farm crop. The known facts concern- 
ing corn make it safe to predict, however, that its dry 
farm acreage will increase rapidly, and that in time 
it will crowd the wheat crop for preeminence. 

Sorghums 

Among dry-farm crops not popularly known are 
the sorghums, which promise to become excellent 
yielders under arid conditions. The sorghums are 
supposed to have come from the tropical sections 
of the globe, but they are now scattered over the 
earth in all climes. The sorghums have been knovv^n 



SORGHUMS FOR DRY-FARMING 245 

in the United States for over half a century, but it 
was only when dry-farming began to develop so tre- 
mendously that the drouth-resisting power of the 
sorghums was recalled. According to Ball, the sor- 
ghums fall into the following classes : — 

THE SORGHUMS 

1. Broom corns 

2. Sorgas or sweet sorghums 

3. Kafirs 

4. Durras 

The broom corns are grown onl}^ for their brush, and 
are not considered in dry-farming; the sorgas for 
forage and sirups, and are especially adapted for irri- 
gation or humid conditions, though they are said to 
endure dry-farm conditions better than corn. The 
Kafirs are dry-farm crops and are grown for grain 
and forage. This group includes Red Kafir, Wliite 
Kafir, Black-hulled White Kafir, and AVhite Milo, all 
of which are valuable for dry-farming. The Durras 
are grown almost exclusively for seed and include 
Jerusalem corn, Brown Durra, and Milo. The work 
of Ball has made Milo one of the most important dry- 
farm crops. As improved, the crop is from four to 
four and a half feet high, with mostly erect heads, 
carrying a large quantity of seeds. Milo is already 
a staple crop in parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, 
and New Mexico. It has further been shown to be 



246 



DRY-FARMING 



adapted to conditions in the Dakotas, Nebraska, 
Colorado, Arizona, Utah, and Idaho. It will prob- 




FiG. 58. Dry-farm corn field. Mt. Air, New Mexico. 

abl}^ be found, in some varietal form, valuable over 
the whole dry-farm territory where t*he altitude is not 
too high and the average temperature not too low. 



ALFALFA FOR DRY-FARMING 247 

It has yielded an average of forty bushels of seed to 
the acre. 

Lucern or alfalfa 

Next to human intelligence and industry, alfalfa 
has probably been the chief factor in the development 
of the irrigated West. It has made possible a rational 
system of agriculture, with the live-stock industry and 
the maintenance of soil fertility as the central con- 
siderations. Alfalfa is now being recognized as a 
desirable crop in humid as well as in irrigated sections, 
and it is probable that alfalfa will soon become the 
chief hay crop of the United States. Originally, 
lucern came from the hot dry countries of Asia, where 
it supplied feed to the animals of the first historical 
peoples. ]\Ioreover, its long tap roots, penetrating 
sometimes forty or fifty feet into the ground, suggest 
that lucern may make ready use of deeply steered soil- 
moisture. On these considerations, alone, lucern 
should prove itself a crop well suited for dry-farming. 
In fact, it has been demonstrated that where condi- 
tions are favorable, lucern may be made to yield 
profitable crops under a rainfall between twelve and 
fifteen inches. Alfalfa prefers calcareous loamy 
soils; sandy and heavy clay soils are not so well 
adapted for successful alfalfa production. Under 
dry-farm conditions the utmost care must be used 
to prevent too thick seeding. The vast majority of 
alfalfa failures on dry-farms have resulted from an 



248 DRY-FARMING 

insufficient supply of moisture for the thickly planted 
crop. The alfalfa field does not attain its maturity 
until after the second year, and a crop which looks 
j ust right the second year will probably be much too 
thick the third and fourth years. From four to six 
pounds of seed per acre are usually ample. Another 
main cause of failure is the common idea that the 
lucern field needs little or no cultivation, when, in 
fact, the alfalfa field should receive as careful soil 
treatment as the wheat field. Heavy, thorough 
disking in spring or fall, or both, is advisable, for it 
leaves the topsoil in a condition to prevent evapora- 
tion and admit air. In Asiatic and North African 
countries, lucern is frequently cultivated between 
rows throughout the hot season. This has been tried 
by Brand in this country and with very good results. 
Since the crop should always be sown with a drill, it 
is comparatively easy to regulate the distance between 
the rows so that cultivating implements may be used. 
If thin seeding and thorough soil stirring are practiced, 
lucern usually grows well, and with such treatment 
should become one of the great dry-farm crops. The 
yield of hay is not large, but sufficient to leave a com- 
fortable margin of profit. Many farmers find it more 
profitable to grow dry-farm lucern for seed. In good 
years from fifty to one hundred and fifty dollars may 
be taken from an acre of lucern seed. However, at 
the present, the principles of lucern seed production 
are not well established, and the seed crop is uncertain. 



PEAS FOR DRY-FARMING 249 

Alfalfa is a leguminous crop and gathers nitrogen 
from the air. It is therefore a good fertilizer. The 
question of soil fertility will become more important 
with the passing of the years, and the value of lucern 
as a land improver will then be more evident than it 
is to-day. 

Other leguminous crops 

The group of leguminous or pod-bearing crops is of 
great importance ; first, because it is rich in nitroge- 
nous substances which are valuable animal foods, and, 
secondly, because it has the power of gathering ni- 
trogen from the air, which can be used for maintain- 
ing the fertility of the soil. Dry-farming will not be 
a wholly safe practice of agriculture until suitable 
leguminous crops are found and made part of the 
crop system. It is notable that over the whole of the 
dry-farm territory of this and other countries wild 
leguminous plants flourish. That is, nitrogen-gather- 
ing plants are at work on the deserts. The farmer 
upsets this natural order of things by cropping the 
land with wheat and wheat only, so long as the land 
will produce profitably. The leguminous plants 
native to dry-farm areas have not as yet been sub- 
jected to extensive economic study, and in truth very 
little is known concerning leguminous plants adapted 
to dry-farming. 

In California, Colorado, and other dry-farm states 
the field pea has been grown with great profit. In- 



250 



DRY-FARMING 



deed it has been found much more profitable than 
wheat production. The field bean, likewise, has 
been grown successfully under dry-farm conditions, 




Fig. 59. Dry-farm sixty-day oat field. Choteau, Montana. Yield, 105 

bushels per acre. 

under a great variety of climates. In Mexico and 
other southern climates, the native population pro- 
duce large quantities of beans upon their dry lands. 



WOODY PLANTS FOR DRY-FARMING 251 

Shaw suggests that sanfoin, long famous for its service 
to European agriculture, may be found to be a prof- 
itable dry-farm crop, and that sand vetch promises 
to become an excellent dry-farm crop. It is very 
likely, however, that many of the leguminous crops 
which have been developed under conditions of abun- 
dant rainfall will be valueless on dry-farm lands. 
Every year will furnish new and more complete in- 
formation on this subject. Leguminous plants will 
surely become important members' of the association 
of dry-farm crops. 

Trees and shrubs 

So far, trees cannot be said to be dry-farm crops, 
though facts are on record that indicate that by the 
application of correct dry-farm principles trees may 
be made to grow and yield profitably on dry-farm 
lands. Of course, it is a well-known fact that native 
trees of various kinds are occasionally found growing 
on the deserts, where the rainfall is very light and the 
soil has been given no care. Examples of such vege- 
tation are the native cedars found throughout the 
Great Basin region and the mesquite tree in Ari;!:ona 
and the Southwest. Few farmers in the arid region 
have as yet undertaken tree culture without the aid 
of irrigation. 

At least one peach orchard is known in Utah which 
grows under a rainfall of about fifteen inches without 



252 DRY-FARMING 

irrigation and produces regularly a small crop of most 
delicious fruit. Parsons describes his Colorado dry- 
farm orchard in which, under a rainfall of about 
fourteen inches, he grows, with great profit, cherries, 
plums, and apples. A number of prospering young 
orchards are growing without irrigation in the Great 
Plains area. Mason discovered a few years ago two 
olive orchards in Arizona and the Colorado desert 
which, planted about fourteen years previously, were 
thriving under an annual rainfall of eight and a 
half and four and a half inches, respectively. These 
olive orchards had been set out under canals which 
later failed. Such attested facts lead to the thought 
that trees may yet take their place as dry-farm crops. 
This hope is strengthened when it is recalled that the 
great nations of antiquity, living in countries of low 
rainfall, grew profitably and without irrigation many 
valuable trees, some of which are still cultivated in 
those countries. The olive industry, for example, is 
even now being successfully developed by modern 
methods in Asiatic and African sections, where the 
average annual rainfall is under ten inches. Since 
1881, under French management, the dry-farm olive 
trees around Tunis have increased from 45,000 to 
400,000 individuals. Mason and also Aaronsohn 
suggest as trees that do well in the arid parts of the 
old world the so-called ^^ Chinese date" or Jujube 
tree, the sycamore fig, and the Carob tree, which 
yields the ^^St. John's Bread'' so dear to childhood. 



TREES FOR DRY-FARMING 253 

Of this last tree Aaronsohn saj^s that twenty trees to 
the acre, under a rainfall of twelve inches, will pro- 
duce 8000 pounds of fruit containing 40 per cent of 
sugar and 7 to 8 per cent of protein. This sur- 
passes the best harvest of alfalfa. Kearnle}^, who 
has made a special study of dry -land olive culture in 
northern Africa, states that in his belief a large va- 
riety of fruit trees may be found which will do well 
under arid and semiarid conditions, and may even 
yield more profit than the grains. 

It is also said that many shade and ornamental 
and other useful plants can be grown on dry-farms ; 
as, for instance, locust, elm, black walnut, silver poplar, 
catalpa, live oak, black oak, yellow pine, red spruce, 
Douglas fir, and cedar. 

The secret of success in tree growing on dry-farms 
seems to lie, first, in planting a few trees per acre, — 
the distance apart should be twice the ordinary dis- 
tance, — and, secondly, in applying vigorously and 
unceasingly the established principles of soil cultiva- 
tion. In a soil stored deeply with moisture and 
properly cultivated, most plants will grow. If the 
soil has not been carefully fallowed before planting, it 
may be necessary to water the young trees slightly 
during the first two seasons. 

Small fruits have been tried on many farms with 
great success. Plums, currants, and gooseberries 
have all been successful. Grapes grow and yield well 
in many dry-farm districts, especially along the warm 
foothills of the Great Basin. 



254 DRY-FARMING 

Tree growing on dry-farm lands is not yet well 
established and, therefore, should be undertaken 
with great care. Varieties accustomed to the climatic 
environment should be chosen, and the principles 
outlined in the preceding pages should be carefully 
used. 

Potatoes 

In recent years, potatoes have become one of the 
best dry-farm crops. Almost wherever tried on lands 
under a rainfall of twelve inches or more potatoes 
have given comparatively large yields. To-day, the 
growing of dry-farm potatoes is becoming an impor- 
tant industry. The principles of light seeding and 
thorough cultivation are indispensable for success. 
Potatoes are well adapted for use in rotations, where 
summer fallowing is not thought desirable. Mac- 
donald enumerates the following as the best varieties 
at present used on dry-farms: Ohio, Mammoth, 
Pearl, Rural New Yorker, and Burbank. 

Miscellaneous 

A further list of dry-farm crops w^ould include rep- 
resentatives of nearly all economic plants, most of 
them tried in small quantity in various localities. 
Sugar beets, vegetables, bulbous plants, etc., have 
all been grown without irrigation under dry-farm 
conditions. Some of these will no doubt be found 



CROPS FOR DRY-FARMING 



255 




Fig. 60. Ears of dry-farm corn. Montana. 



256 DRY-FARMING 

to be profitable and will then be brought into the 
commercial scheme of dry-farming. 

Meanwhile, the crop problems of dry-farming de- 
mand that much careful work be done in the im- 
mediate future by the agencies having such work in 
charge. The best varieties of crops already in prof- 
itable use need to be determined. More new plants 
from all parts of the world need to be brought to this 
new dry-farm territory and tried out. Many of the 
native plants need examination with a view to their 
economic use. For instance, the sego lily bulbs, upon 
which the Utah pioneers subsisted for several seasons 
of famine, may possibly be made a cultivated crop. 
Finally, it remains to be said that it is doubtful wis- 
dom to attempt to grow the more intensive crops on 
dry-farms. Irrigation and dry-farming will always 
go together. They are supplementary systems of 
agriculture in arid and semiarid regions. On the 
irrigated lands should be grown the crops that require 
much labor per acre and that in return yield largely 
per acre. New crops and varieties should besought 
for the irrigated farms. On the dry-farms should be 
grown the crops that can be handled in a large way 
and at a small cost per acre, and that yield only 
moderate acre returns. By such cooperation between 
irrigation and dry-farming will the regions of the 
world with a scanty rainfall become the healthiest, 
wealthiest, happiest, and most populous on earth. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE COMPOSITION OF DRY-FARM CROPS 

The acre-yields of crops on dry-farms, even under 
the most favorable methods of culture, are likely to be 
much smaller than in humid sections with fertile soils. 
The necessity for frequent fallowing or resting periods 
over a large portion of the dry-farm territory further 
decreases the average annual yield. It does not fol- 
low from this condition that dry-farming is less prof- 
itable than humid- or irrigation-farming, for it has 
been fully demonstrated that the profit on the invest- 
ment is as high under proper dry-farming as under 
any other similar generally adopted system of farming 
in any part of the world. Yet the practice of dry- 
farming would appear to be, and indeed would be, 
much more desirable could the crop yield be in- 
creased. The discovery of any condition which will 
offset the small annual yields is, therefore, of the 
highest importance to the advancement of dry-farm- 
ing. The recognition of the superior quality of 
practically all crops grown without irrigation under 
a limited rainfall has done much to stimulate faith 
in the great profitableness of dry-farming. As the 
varying nature of the materials used by man for food, 
8 257 



258 DRY-FARMING 

clothing, and shelter has become more clearly under- 
stood, more attention has been given to the valuation 
of commercial products on the basis of quality as well 
as of quantity. Sugar beets, for instance, are bought 
by the sugar factories under a guarantee of a mini- 
mum sugar content ; and many factories of Europe 
vary the price paid according to the sugar contained 
by the beets. The millers, especially in certain parts 
of the country where wheat has deteriorated, dis- 
tinguish carefully between the flour-producing quali- 
ties of wheats from various sections and fix the price 
accordingly. Even in the household, information 
concerning the real nutritive value of various foods is 
being sought eagerly, and foods known to possess the 
highest value in the maintenance of life are displacing, 
even at a higher cost, the inferior products. The 
quality valuation is, in fact, being extended as 
rapidly as the growth of knowledge will permit to the 
chief food materials of commerce. As this practice 
becomes fixed the dry-farmer will be able to command 
the best market prices for his products, for it is un- 
doubtedly true that from the point of view of quality, 
drv-farm food products may be placed safely in com- 
petition with any farm products on the markets of the 
world. 

Proportion of plant parts 

It need hardly be said, after the discussions in the 
preceding chapters, that the nature of plant growth 




Fig. 61. Heads of macaroni wheat. 1, Kubanka. 2, Nicaragua. 3, 
Velvet Don. 4, Black Don. 5, Wild Goose. These are among the 
best drouth-resistant spring wheats. 



260 DRY-FARMING 

is deeply modified by the arid conditions prevailing 
in dry-farming. This shows itself first in the propor- 
tion of the various plant parts, such as roots, stems, 
leaves, and seeds. The root systems of dry-farm 
crops are generally greatly developed, and it is a com- 
mon observation that in adverse seasons the plants 
that possess the largest and most vigorous roots en- 
dure best the drouth and burning heat. The first 
function of the leaves is to gather materials for the 
building and strengthening of the roots, and only after 
this has been done do the stems lengthen and the 
leaves thicken. Usually, the short season is largely 
gone before the stem and leaf growth begins, and, 
consequently, a somewhat dwarfed appearance is 
characteristic of dry-farm crops. The size of sugar 
beets, potato tubers, and such underground parts 
depends upon the available water and food supply 
when the plant has established a satisfactory root 
and leaf system. If the water and food are scarce, 
a thin beet results ; if abmidant, a well-filled beet may 
result. 

Dry-farming is characterized by a somewhat short 
season. Even if good growing weather prevails, the 
decrease of water in the soil has the effect of hastening 
maturity. The formation of flowers and seed begins, 
therefore, earlier and is completed more quickly under 
arid than under humid conditions. IMoreover, and 
resulting probably from the greater abundance of 
materials stored in the root system, the proportion 



PROPORTION OF GRAIN TO STRAW 261 

of heads to leaves and stems is highest in dry-farm 
crops. In fact, it is a general law that the proportion 
of heads to straw in grain crops increases as the water 
supply decreases. This is shown very well even 
under humid or irrigation conditions when different 
seasons or different applications of irrigation water 
are compared. For instance. Hall quotes from the 
Rothamsted experiments to the effect that in 1879, 
which was a wet year (41 inches), the wheat crop 
yielded 38 pounds of grain for every 100 pounds of 
straw; whereas, in 1893, which was a dry year (23 
inches), the wheat crop yielded 95 pounds of grain to 
every 100 pounds of straw. The Utah station like- 
wise has established the same law under arid condi- 
tions. In one series of experiments it was shown as 
an average of three years^ trial that a field which had 
received 22.5 inches of irrigation water produced a 
wheat crop that gave 67 pounds of grain to every 
100 pounds of straw ; while another field which re- 
ceived only 7.5 inches of irrigation water produced a 
crop that gave 100 pounds of grain for every 100 
pounds of straw. Since wheat is grown essentially 
for the grain, such a variation is of tremendous impor- 
tance. The amount of available water affects every 
part of the plant. Thus, as an illustration, Carleton 
states that the per cent of meat in oats grown in Wis- 
consin under humid conditions was 67.24, while in 
North Dakota, Kansas, and Montana, under arid and 
semiarid conditions, it was 71.51. Similar varia- 



262 DRY-FARMING 

tions of plant parts may be observed as a direct result 
of varying the amount of available water. In general, 
then, it may be said that the roots of dry-farm crops 
are well developed ; the parts above ground some- 
what dwarfed ; the proportion of seed to straw high, 
and the proportion of meat or nutritive materials in 
the plant parts likewise high. 

The water in dry-farm crops 

One of the constant constituents of all plants and 
plant parts is water. Hay, flour, and starch contain 
' comparatively large quantities of water, which can be 
removed only by heat. The water in green plants is 
often very large. In young lucern, for instance, it 
reaches 85 per cent, and in young peas nearly 90 
per cent, or more than is found in good cow's milk. 
The water so held by plants has no nutritive value 
above ordinary water. It is, therefore, profitable for 
the consumer to buy dry foods. In this particular, 
again, dry-farm crops have a distinct advantage. 
During growth there is not perhaps a great difference 
in the water content of plants, due to climatic dif- 
ferences, but after harvest the drying-out process 
goes on much more completely in dry-farm than in 
humid districts. Hay, cured in humid regions, often 
contains from 12 to 20 per cent of water; in arid 
climates it contains as little as 5 per cent and seldom 
more than 12 per cent. The drier hay is naturally 



WATER CONTENT OF DRY-FARM CROPS 263 

more valuable pound for pound than the moister hay, 
and a difference in price, . based upon the difference 
in water content, is already being felt in certain sec- 
tions of the West. 

The moisture content of dry-farm wheat, the chief 
dry-farm crop, is even more important. According 
to Wiley the average water content of wheat for the 
United States is 10.62 per cent, ranging from 15 to 7 
per cent. Stewart and Greaves examined a large 
number of wheats grown on the dry-farms of Utah 
and found that the average per cent of water in the 
common bread varieties was 8.46 and in the durum 
varieties 8.89. This means that the Utah dry-farm 
wheats transported to ordinary humid conditions 
would take up enough water from the air to increase 
their weight one fortieth, or 2| per cent, before they 
reached thi r^. vorage water content of American wheats. 
In other words, 1,000,000 bushels of Utah dry-farm 
wheat contain as much nutritive matter as 1,025,000 
bushels of wheat grown and kept under humid con- 
ditions. This difference should be and now is recog- 
nized in the prices paid. In fact, shrewd dealers, 
acquainted with the dryness of dry-farm wheat, have 
for some years bought wheat from the dry-farms at a 
slightly increased price, and trusted to the increase 
in weight due to water absorption in more humid 
climates for their profits. The time should be near 
at hand when grains and similar products should be 
purchased upon the basis of a moisture test. 



264 DRY-FARMING 

While it is undoubtedly true that dry-farm crops 
are naturally drier than those of huniid countries, 
yet it must also be kept in mind that the driest dry- 
farm crops are always obtained where the summers 
are hot and rainless. In sections where the precipi- 
tation comes chiefly in the spring and summer the 
difference would not be so great. Therefore, the 
crops raised on the Great Plains would not be so dry 
as those raised in California or in the Great Basin. 
Yet, wherever the annual rainfall is so small as to 
establish dry-farm conditions, whether it comes in 
the winter or summer, the cured crops are drier than 
those produced under conditions of a much higher 
rainfall, and dry farmers should insist that, so far as 
possible in the future, sales be based on dry matter. 

The nutritive substances in crops 

The dry matter of all plants and plant parts con- 
sists of three very distinct classes of substances: 
First, ash or the mineral constituents. Ash is used 
by the body in building bones and in supplying the 
blood with compounds essential to the various life 
processes. Second, protein or the substances con- 
taining the element nitrogen. Protein is used by 
the body in making blood, muscle, tendons, hair, and 
nails, and under certain conditions it is burned within 
the body for the production of heat. Protein is 
perhaps the most important food constituent. Third, 




Fig. 62. Heads of hard winter wheats. 1, Turkey (Crimean). 2, Odi'ssa 
White Chaff. 3. Odessa Red Chaff. 4, Roumanian White Chaff. 
5, Khrakor. 6. Ulta. 



266 



DRY-FARMING 



non-nitrogenous substances, including fats, woody 
fiber, and nitrogen-free extract, a name given to the 
group of sugars, starches, and related substances. 
These substances are used by the body in the pro- 
duction of fat, and are also burned for the production 




Fig. 63. Dry-farm Milo maize. Rosebud Co., Montana. 

of heat. Of these valuable food constituents protein 
is probably the most important, first, because it 
forms the most important tissues of the body and, 
,- secondly, because it is less abundant than the fats, 
starches, and sugars. Indeed, plants rich in protein 
nearly always command the highest prices. 

The composition of any class of plants varies con- 
siderably in different localities and in different sea- 



VARIATIONS IN COMPOSITION 



267 



sons. This may be due to the nature of the soil, or 
to the fertihzer apphed, though variations in plant 
composition resulting from soil conditions are com- 
paratively small. The greater variations are almost 
wholly the result of varying climate and water supply. 
As far as it is now known the strongest single factor 
in changing the composition of plants is the amount 
of water available to the growing plant. 



Variations due to varying water supply 

The Utah station has conducted numerous ex- 
periments upon the effect of water upon plant com- 
position. The method in every case has been to 
apply different amounts of water throughout the 
growing season on contiguous plats of uniform land. 
Some of the early results are shown by the following 
table : — 

The Effect of Water on the Percentage Composition 

OF Plant Parts 



Inches 

OF 

Water 
Applied 



Ash 


Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 











Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 



Corn Kernels 



7.5 


1.62 


15.08 


6.02 


1.89 


75.39 


15.0 


1.65 


13.48 


6.16 


1.91 


76.86 


37.3 


1.62 


12.52 


6.26 


1.89 


77.72 



268 



DRY-FARMING 



The Effect of Water on the Percentage Composition 
OF Plant Parts — Continued 



Inches 

OF 

Water 
Applied 



7.0 
13.2 
30.0 



4.6 
10.3 
21.1 



7.5 
15.0 
30.5 



8.0 
15.0 
40.0 



Ash 



3.26 
4.52 
4.49 



2.70 
2.54 
2.50 



1.17 
2.76 
2.99 



6.68 
4.85 

4.87 



Protein 



Fat 



Oat Kernels 



20.79 
17.29 
15.49 



3.91 
4.19 
4.59 



Wheat Kernels 



26.72 
19.93 
16.99 



2.37 
2.09 
1.97 



Pea Kernels 



31.16 

28.37 
21.29 



1.70 

0.87 
1.16 



Potato Tubers 



11.83 

12.52 

8.33 



0.55 
0.33 
0.79 



Sugar Beets 



Fiber 



9.02 
10.76 
10.92 



5.44 
4.47 
3.92 



7.88 
7.14 
6.78 



2.69 
2.21 
2.06 



Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract 



63.02 
63.25 
64.51 



62.77 
70.97 
74.62 



58.09 
60.84 
67.78 



78.25 
80.08 
83.95 



12.3 


4.76 


9.68 


0.29 


5.37 


79.91 


21.0 


4.98 


7.50 


0.18 


6.02 


81.32 


40.8 


4.69 


5.63 


0.45 


5.68 


83.55 



WATER INFLUENCES COMPOSITION 269 

Even a casual study of this table shows that the 
quantity of water used influenced the composition of 
the plant parts. The ash and the fiber do not appear 
to be greatly influenced, but the other constituents 
vary with considerable regularity with the variations 
in the amount of irrigation water. The protein shows 
the greatest variation. As the irrigation water is 
increased, the percentage of protein decreases. In 
the case of wheat the variation was over 9 per cent. 
The percentage of fat and nitrogen-free extract, on the 
other hand, becomes larger as the water increases. 
That is, crops grown with little water, as in dry-farm- 
ing, are rich in the important flesh- and blood-forming 
substance protein, and comparatively poor in fat, 
sugar, starch, and other of the more abundant heat- 
and fat-producing substances. This difference is of 
tremendous importance in placing dry-farm products 
on the food markets of the world. Not only seeds, 
tubers, and roots show this variation, but the stems 
and leaves of plants grown with little water are found 
to contain a higher percentage of protein than those 
grown in more humid climates. 

The direct effect of water upon the composition of 
plants has been observed by many students. For 
instance, Mayer, working in Holland, found that, in a 
soil containing throughout the season 10 per cent of 
water, oats was produced containing 10.6 per cent 
of protein; in soil containing 30 per cent of water, 
the protein percentage was only 5.6 per cent, and in 



270 



DRY-FARMING 



soil containing 70 per cent of water^ it was only 5.2 
per cent. Carleton, in a study of analyses of the 




Fig. 64. Dry-farm Brome-grass. Montana, 1908. Yield, 1.4 tons per acre. 

same varieties of wheat grown in humid and semi- 
arid districts of the United States, found that the 
percentage of protein in wheat from the semiarid 
area was 14.4 per cent as against 11.94 per cent in the 



CLIMATE AND COMPOSITION 271 

wheat from the humid area. The average protein 
content of the wheat of the United States is a httle 
more than 12 per cent ; Stewart and Greaves found an 
average of 16.76 per cent of protein in Utah dry-farm 
wheats of the common bread varieties and 17.14 per 
cent in the durum varieties. The experiments con- 
ducted at Rothamsted, England, as given by Hall, 
confirm these results. For example, during 1893, a 
very dry year, barley kernels contained 12.99 per 
cent of protein, while in 1894, a wet, though free- 
growing year, the barley contained only 9.81 per cent 
of protein. Quotations might be multiplied con- 
firming the principle that crops grown with little 
water contain much protein and little heat- and fat- 
producing substances. 

Climate and composition 

The general climate, especially as regards the length 
of the growing season and naturally including the 
water supply, has a strong effect upon the composi- 
tion of plants. Carleton observed that the same 
varieties of wheat grown at Nephi, Utah, contained 
16.61 per cent protein ; at Amarillo, Texas, 15.25 per 
cent; and at McPherson, Kansas, a humid station, 
13.04 per cent. This variation is undoubtedly due 
in part to the varying annual precipitation but, also, 
and in large part, to the varying general climatic 
conditions at the three stations. 



272 



DRY-FARMING 



An extremely interesting and important experi- 
ment, showing the effect of locaHty upon the com- 
position of wheat kernels, is reported by LeClerc and 
Leavitt. Wheat grown in 1905 in Kansas was 
planted in 1906 in Kansas, California, and Texas. In 
1907 samples of the seeds grown at these three points 
were planted side by side at each of the three states. 
All the crops from the three localities were analyzed 
separately each year. Some of the results of this 
experiment are shown in the following table: — 

Effect of Locality on Composition of Crimean Wheat 



Determination 



Protein . . . 
Weight per bushel 
(lbs.). . . . 
Flinty (per cent) 



Protein .... 
Weight per bushel 

(lbs.) .... 
Flinty (per cent) 



Grown in Kansas 



Grown in California 



Grown in Texas 



Original Seed, Kansas, 1905 

16.22 

56.50 
98.00 

1906 Crop from Kansas Seed of 1905 



19.13 

58.8 
100.0 



10.38 

59.4 
36.0 



12.18 
58.9 



1907 Crop from Seed of 1906 



Protein . . 
Weight per 

bushel (lbs.) 
Flinty . . . 



From 
Kan- 
sas 



22.23 

51.3 
100.0 



From 
Cali- 
fornia 



22.23 

51.3 
100.0 



From 
Texas 



22.81 

50.7 
100.0 



Kan- 
sas 



11.00 

61.3 
50.0 



Cali- 
fornia 



11.33 

61.8 
60.0 



Texas 



11.37 

62.3 
50.0 



Kan- 
sas 



16.97 

58.5 
98.0 



Cali- 
fornia 



18.22 

57.3 
100.0 



Texas 



18.21 

58.6 
95.0 



LOCALITY AND COMPOSITION 273 

The results are striking and convincing. The origi- 
nal seed grown in Kansas in 1905 contained 16.22 per 
cent of protein. The 1906 crop grown from this 
seed in Kansas contained 19.13 per cent protein; in 
Cahfornia, 10.38 percent ; and in Texas, 12. 18 per cent. 
In 1907 the crop harvested in Kansas from the 1906 
seed from these widely separated places and of very 
different composition contained uniformly some- 
what more than 22 per cent of protein ; harvested in 
California, somewhat more than 11 per cent; and 
harvested in Texas, about 18 per cent. In short, 
the composition of wheat kernels is independent of the 
composition of the seed or the nature of the soil, but 
depends primarily upon the prevailing climatic con- 
ditions, including the water supply. The weight of 
the wheat per bushel, that is, the average size and 
weight of the wheat kernel, and also the hardness or 
flinty character of the kernels, were strongly affected 
by the varying climatic conditions. It is generally 
true that dry-farm grain weighs more per bushel than 
grain grown under humid conditions; hardness usu- 
ally accompanies a high protein content and is there- 
fore characteristic of dry-farm wheat. These notable 
lessons teach the futility of bringing in new seed 
from far distant places in the hope that better and 
larger crops may be secured. The conditions under 
which growth occurs determine chiefly the nature of 
the crop. It is a common experience in the West 
that farmers who do not understand this principle 



274 DRY-FARMING 

send to the Middle West for seed corn, with the result 
that great crops of stalks and leaves with no ears are 
obtained. The only safe rule for the dry-farmer to 
follow is to use seed which has been grown for many 
years under dry-farm conditions. 

A reason for variation in composition 

It is possible to suggest a reason for the high pro- 
tein content of dry-farm crops. It is well known 
that all plants secure most of their nitrogen early in 




Fig. Go. Dry-farm rye. Montana, 1909. Yield, 33 bushels per acre. 

the growing period. From the nitrogen, protein is 
formed, and all young plants are, therefore, very rich 
in protein. As the plant becomes older, little more 
protein is added, but more and more carbon is taken 
from the air to form the fats, starches, sugars, and 
©ther non-nitrogenous substances. Consequently, 



VARIATION IN COMPOSITION 275 

the pro])ortion or percentage of protein becomes 
smaller as the plant becomes older. The impelling 
purpose of the plant is to produce seed. Whenever 
the water supply begins to give out, or the season 
shortens in any other way, the plant immediately 
begins to ripen. Now, the essential effect of dry- 
farm conditions is to shorten the season; the com- 
paratively young plants, yet rich in protein, begin to 
produce seed; and at harvest, seed, and leaves, and 
stalks are rich in the flesh- and blood-forming element 
of plants. In more humid countries plants delav 
the time of seed production and thus enable the plants 
to store up more carbon and thus reduce the percent 
of protein. The short growing season, induced by 
the shortness-of water, is undoubtedly the main reason 
for the higher protein content and consequently 
higher nutritive value of all dry-farm crops. 

Nutritive value of dry-farm hay, straw, and flour 

. All the parts of dry-farm crops are highly nutri- 
tious. This needs to be more clearl}^ understood by 
the dry-farmers. Dry-farm hay, for instance, be- 
cause of its high protein content, ma}^ be fed with 
crops not so rich in this element, thereby making 
a larger profit for the farmer. Dry-farm straw often 
has the feeding value of good ha}-, as has been dem- 
onstrated by analyses and by feeding tests con- 
ducted in times of hay scarcity. Especially is the 



276 DRY-FARMING 

header straw of high feeding value, for it represents 
the upper and more nutritious ends of the stalks. 
Dry-farm straw, therefore, should be carefully kept 
and fed to animals instead of being scattered over the 
ground or even burned as is too often the case. Only 
few feeding experiments having in view the relative 
feeding value of dry-farm crops have as yet been 
made, but the few on record agree in showing the 
superior value of dry-farm crops, whether fed singly 
or in combination. 

The differences in the chemical composition of 
plants and plant products induced by differences in 
the water-supply and climatic environment appear 
in the manufactured products, such as flour, bran, 
and shorts. Flour made from Fife wheat grown on 
the dry-farms of Utah contained practically 16 per 
cent of protein, while flour made from Fife wheat 
grown in Maine and the Middle West is reported by 
the Maine Station as containing from 13.03 to 13.75 
per cent of protein. Flour made from Blue Stem 
wheat grown on the Utah dry-farms contained 15.52 
per cent of protein ; from the same variety grown in 
Maine and in the Middle West 11.69 and 11.51 per 
cent of protein respectively. The moist and dry 
gluten, the gliadin and the glutenin, all of which 
make possible the best and most nourishing kinds 
of bread, are present in largest quantity and best 
proportion in flours made from wheats grown under 
typical dry-farm conditions. The by-products of 



THE COMPOSITION OF DRY-FARM CROPS 277 

the milling process, likewise, are rich in nutritive 
elements. 

Future Needs 

It has already been pointed out that there is a 
growing tendency to purchase food materials on 
the basis of composition. New discoveries in the 
domains of plant composition and animal nutrition 
and the improved methods of rapid and accurate 
valuation will accelerate this tendency. Even now, 
manufacturers of food products print on cartons 
and in advertising matter quality reasons for the 
superior food values of certain articles. At least 
one firm produces two parallel sets of its manufac- 
tured foods, one for the man who does hard physical 
labor, and the other for the brain worker. Quality, 
as related to the needs of the body, whether of beast 
or man, is rapidly becoming the first question in 
judging any food material. The present era of high 
prices makes this matter even more important. 

In view of this condition and tendency, the fact 
that dry-farm products are unusually rich in the 
most valuable nutritive materials is of tremendous 
importance to the development of dry-farming. The 
small average yields of dry-farm crops do not look so 
small when it is known that they command higher 
prices per pound in competition with the larger 
crops of more humid climates. More elaborate 
investigations should be undertaken to determine 




Fig. 66. Dry-farm oats. New Mexico. 



THE COMPOSITION OF DRY-FARM CROPS 279 

the quality of crops grown in different dry-farm 
districts. As far as possible each section, great or 
small, should confine itself to the growing of a 
variety of each crop yielding well and possessing 
the highest nutritive value. In that manner each 
section of the great dry-farm territory would soon 
come to stand for some dependable special quality 
that would compel a first-class market. Further, 
the superior feeding value of dry-farm ])roducts 
should be thoroughly advertised among the con- 
sumers in order to create a demand on the markets 
for a quality valuation. A few years of such sys- 
tematic honest work would do much to improve 
the financial basis of dry-farming. 



CHAPTER XIV 

MAINTAINING THE SOIL FERTILITY 

All plants when carefully burned leave a portion 
of ash; ranging widely in quantity, averaging about 
5 per cent, and often exceeding 10 per cent of the 
dry weight of the plant. This plant ash represents 
inorganic substances taken from the soil by the 
roots. In addition, the nitrogen of plants, averaging 
about 2 per cent and often amounting to 4 per cent, 
which, in burning, passes off in gaseous form, is also 
usually taken from the soil by the plant roots. A 
comparatively large quantity of the plant is, there- 
fore, drawn directly from the soil. Among the ash 
ingredients are many which are taken up by the 
plant simply because they are present in the soil; 
others, on the other hand, as has been shown by 
numerous classical investigations, are indispensable 
to plant growth. If any one of these indispensable 
ash ingredients be absent, it is impossible for a plant 
to mature on such a soil. In fact, it is pretty well 
established that, providing the physical conditions 
and the water supply are satisfactory, the fertility 
of a soil depends largely upon the amount of avail- 
able ash ingredients, or plant-food. 

280 




03 



d 

M 



282 DRY-FARMING 

A clear distinction must be made between the 
total and available plant-food. The essential plant- 
foods often occur in insoluble combinations, value- 
less to plants ; only the plant-foods that are soluble 
in the soil-water or in the juices of plant roots are 
of value to plants. It is true that practically all 
soils contain all the indispensable plant-foods; it 
is also true, however, that in most soils they are 
present, as available plant-foods, in comparatively 
small quantities. When crops are removed from 
the land year after year, without any return being 
made, it naturally follows that under ordinary con- 
ditions the amount of available plant-food is dimin- 
ished, with a strong probability of a corresponding 
diminution in crop-producing power. In fact, the 
soils of many of the older countries have been per- 
manently injured by continuous cropping, with 
nothing returned, practiced through centuries. Even 
in many of the younger states, continuous cropping 
to wheat or other crops for a generation or less has 
resulted in a large decrease in the crop yield. 

Practice and experiment have shown that such 
diminishing fertility may be retarded or wholly 
avoided, first, by so working or cultivating the soil 
as to set free much of the insoluble plant-food and, 
secondly, by returning to the soil all or part of the 
plant-food taken away. The recent development 
of the commercial fertilizer industry is a response to 
this truth. It may be said that, so far as the agri- 



AVAILABLE FOOD SUPPLY 283 

cultural soils of the world are now known, only three 
of the essential plant-foods are likely to be absent, 
namely, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen; of 
these, by far the most important is nitrogen. The 
whole question of maintaining the supply of plant- 
foods in the soil concerns itself in the main with the 
supply of these three substances. 

The 'persistent fertility of dry-faryns 

In recent years, numerous farmers and some 
investigators have stated that under dry-farm condi- 
tions the fertility of soils is not impaired by cropping 
without manuring. This view has been taken be- 
cause of the well-known fact that in localities where 
dry-farming has been practiced on the same soils 
from twenty-five to forty-five years, without the 
addition of manures, the average crop yield has not 
only failed to diminish, but in most cases has in- 
creased. In fact, it is the almost unanimous testi- 
mony of the oldest dry-farmers of the United States,\ 
operating under a rainfall from twelve to twenty \ 
inches, that the crop yields have increased as they 
cultural methods have been perfected. If any 
adverse effect of the steady removal of plant-foods 
has occurred, it has been w^holly overshadowed by 
other factors. The older dry-farms in Utah, for 
instance, which are among the oldest of the country, 
have never been manured, yet are yielding better 



284 DRY-FARMING 

to-day than they did a generation ago. Strangely 
enough^ this is not true of the irrigated farms, operat- 
ing under hke soil and dimatic conditions. This 
behavior of crop production under dry-farm condi- 
tions has led to the belief that the question of soil- 
fertility is not an important one to dry-farmers. 
Nevertheless, if our present theories of plant nutri- 
tion are correct, it is also true that, if continuous 
cropping is practiced on our dry-farm soils without 
some form of manuring, the time must come when 
the productive power of the soils will be injured and 
the only recourse of the farmer will be to return to the 
soils some of the plant-food taken from it. 

The view that soil fertility is not diminished by 
dry-farming appears at first sight to be strengthened 
by the results obtained by investigators who have 
made determinations of the actual plant-food in 
soils that have long been dry-farmed. The sparsely 
settled condition of the dry-farm territory furnishes 
as yet an excellent opportunity to compare virgin 
and dry-farmed lands and which frequently may be 
found side by side in even the older dry-farm sections. 
Stewart found that Utah dry-farm soils, cultivated 
for fifteen to forty years and never manured, were 
in many cases richer in nitrogen than neighboring 
virgin lands. Bradley found that the soils of the 
great dry-farm wheat belt of Eastern Oregon con- 
tained, after having been farmed for a quarter of a 
century, practically as much nitrogen as the adjoin- 



FERTILITY OF DRY-FARM LANDS 



285 



ing virgin lands. The determinations were made 
to a depth of eighteen inches. Alway and Trumbull, 
on the other hand, found in a soil from Indian Head, 
Saskatchewan, that in twenty-five years of cultiva- 
tion the total amount of nitrogen had been reduced 




Fig. 68. Dry-farm white hull-less barley. Choteau, Montana, 1909. 
Yield, 48 bushels per acre. 

about one third, though the alternation of fallow 
and crop, commonly practiced in dry-farming, did 
not show a greater loss of soil nitrogen than other 
methods of cultivation. It must be ke})t in mind 
that the soil of Indian Head contains from two to 
three times as much nitrogen as is ordinarily found 



286 DRY-FARMING 

in the soils of the Great Plains and from three to four 
times as much as is found in the soils of the Great 
Basin and the High Plateaus. It may be assumed, 
therefore, that the Indian Head soil was peculiarly 
liable to nitrogen losses. Headden, in an investi- 
gation of the nitrogen content of Colorado soils, 
has come to the conclusion that arid conditions, like 
those of Colorado, favor the direct accumulation 
of nitrogen in soils. All in all, the undiminished 
crop yield and the composition of the cultivated 
fields lead to the belief that soil-fertility problems 
under dry-farm conditions are widely different from 
the old well-known problems under humid conditions. 

Reasons for dry-farming fertility 

It is not really difficult to understand why the 
yields and, apparently, the fertility of dry-farms 
have continued to increase during the period of re- 
corded dry-farm history — nearly half a century. 

First, the intrinsic fertility of arid as compared with 
humid soils is very high. (See Chapter V.) The 
production and removal of many successive bountiful 
crops would not have as marked an effect on arid as 
on humid soils, for both yield and composition change 
more slowly on fertile soils. The natural extraordi- 
narily high fertility of dry-farm soils explains, there- 
fore, primarily and chiefly, the increasing yields on 
dry-farm soils that receive proper cultivation. 



THE FERTILITY OF THE DRY LANDS 287 

The intrinsic fertility of arid soils is not alone 
sufficient to explain the increase in plant-food which . 
undoubtedly occurs in the upper foot or two of 
cultivated dry-farm lands. In seeking a suitable 
explanation of this phenomenon it must be recalled 
that the proportion of available plant-food in arid 
soils is very uniform to great depths, and that plants 
grown under proper dry-farm conditions are deep 
rooted and gather much nourishment from the lower 
soil layers. As a consequence, the drain of a heavy 
crop does not fall upon the upper few feet as is 
usually the case in humid soils. The dry-farmer has 
several farms, one upon the other, which permit 
even improper methods of farming to go on longer 
than would be the case on shallower soils. 

The great depth of arid soils further permits^ the ^ j 
storage of rain and snow water, as has been explained y 
in previous chapters, to depths of from ten to fifteen A 
feet. As the growing season proceeds, this water is 
gradually drawn towards the surface, and with it 
much of the plant-food dissolved by the water in 
the lower soil layers. This process repeated year 
after year results in a concentration in the upper soil- 
layers of fertility normally distributed in the soil to 
the full depth reach by the soil-moisture. At certain 
seasons, especially in the fall, this concentration may 
be detected with greatest certainty. In general, 
the same action occurs in virgin lands, but the meth- 
ods of dry-farm cultivation and cropping which per- 



288 DRY-FARMING 

mit a deeper penetration of the natural precipitation 
and a freer movement of the soil-water result in a 
larger quantity of plant-food reaching the upper 
two or three feet from the lower soil depths. Such 
concentration near the surface, when it is not exces- 
sive, favors the production of increased yields of 
crops. 

The characteristic high fertility and great depth 
of arid soils are probably the two main factors 
explaining the apparent increase of the fertility of 
dry-farms under a system of agriculture which does 
not include the practice of manuring. Yet, there 
are other conditions that contribute largely to the 
result. For instance, every cultural method accepted 
in dry-farming, such as deep plowing, fallowing, and 
frequent cultivation, enables the weathering forces 
to act upon the soil particles, ^specially is it made 
easy for the air to enter the soil. Under such condi- 
tions, the plant-food unavailable to plants because 
of its insoluble condition is liberated and made avail- 
able. The practice of dry-farming is of itself more 
conducive to such accumulation of available plant- 
food than are the methods of humid agriculture. 

Further, the annual yield of any crop under con- 
ditions of dry-farming is smaller than under condi- 
tions of high rainfall. Less fertility is, therefore, 
removed by each crop and a given amount of avail- 
able fertility is sufficient to produce a large number 
of crops without showing signs of deficiency. The 



YIELD OF DRY-FARM CROPS 



289 



comparatively small annual yield of dr3^-farm crops 
is emphasized in 
view of the common 
practice of summer 
fallowing, which 
means that the land 
is cropped only every 
other year or possi- 
bly two years out of 
three. Under such 
conditions the yield 
in any one year is 
cut in two to give an 
annual yield. 

The use of the 
header wherever 
possible in harvest- 
ing dry-farm grain 
also aids materially 
in maintaining soil- 
fertility. By means 
of the header only 
the heads of the 
grain are clipped off ; 
the stalks are left 
standing. In the 

fall, usually, this Fj^. 69. Dry-farm barley. Utah, 1909. 

stubble is plowed 

under and gradually decays. In the earlier dry- 




290 DRY-FARMING 

farm days farmers feared that under conditions 
of low rainfall; the stubble or straw plowed under 
would not decay, but would leave the soil in a loose 
dry condition unfavorable for the growth of plants. 
During the last fifteen years it has been abundantly 
demonstrated that if the correct methods of dry 
farming are followed, so that a fair balance of water 
is always found in the soil, even in the fall, the heavy, 
thick header stubble may be plowed into the soil 
with the certainty that it will decay and thus enrich 
the soil. The header stubble contains a very large 
proportion of the nitrogen that the crop has taken 
from the soil and more than half of the potash and 
phosphoric acid. Plowing under the header stubble 
returns all this material to the soil. Moreover, the 
bulk of the stubble is carbon taken from the air. 
This decays, forming various acid substances which 
act on the soil grains to set free the fertility which 
they contain. At the end of the process of decay 
humus is formed, which is not only a storehouse of 
plant-food, but effective in maintaining a good 
physical condition of the soil. The introduction of 
the header in dry-farming was one of the big steps 
in making the practice certain and profitable. 

Finally, it must be admitted that there are a great 
many more or less poorly understood or unknown 
forces at work in all soils which aid in the mainte- 
nance of soil-fertility. Chief among these are the low 
forms of life known as bacteria. Many of these. 



BACTERIA AND SOIL FERTILITY 291 

under favorable conditions, ap]3ear to have the power 
of hberating food from the insoluble soil grains. 
Others have the power when settled on the roots 
of leguminous or pod-bearing plants to fix nitrogen 
from the air and convert it into a form suitable for 
the need of plants. In recent years it has been found 
that other forms of bacteria, the best known of which 
is azotobacter, have the power of gathering nitrogen 
from the air and combining it for the plant needs 
without the presence of leguminous plants. These 
nitrogen-gathering bacteria utilize for their life pro- 
cesses the organic matter in the soil, such as the 
decaying header stubble, and at the same time 
enrich the soil by the addition of combined nitrogen. 
Now, it so happens that these important bacteria 
require a soil somewhat rich in lime, well aerated and 
fairly dry and warm. These conditions are all 
met on the vast majority of our dry-farm soils, under 
the system of culture outlined in this volume. Hall 
maintains that to the activity of these bacteria 
must be ascribed the large quantities of nitrogen 
found in many virgin soils and probably the final 
explanation of the steady nitrogen supply for dry 
farms is to be found in the work of the azotohacter 
and related forms of low life. The potash and phos- 
phoric acid supply can probably be maintained for 
ages by proper methods of cultivation, though the 
phosphoric acid will become exhausted long before 
the potash. The nitrogen supply, however, must 



292 DRY-FARMING 

come from without. The nitrogen question will 
undoubtedly soon be the leading one before the 
students of dry-farm fertility. A liberal supply of 
organic matter in the soil with cultural methods 
favoring the growth of the nitrogen-gathering bac- 
teria appears at present to be the first solution of the 
nitrogen question. Meanwhile^ the activity of the 
nitrogen-gathering bacteria, like azotohacter, is one 
of our best explanations of the large presence of 
nitrogen in cultivated dry-farm soils. 

To summarize, the apparent increase in produc- 
tivity and plant-food content of dry-farm soils can 
best be explained by a consideration of these factors : 

(1) The intrinsically high fertility of the arid soils; 

(2) the deep feeding ground for the deep root systems 
of dry-farm crops ; (3) the concentration of the plant 
food distributed throughout the soil by the upward 
movement of the natural precipitation stored in the 
soil ; (4) the cultural methods of dry-farming which 
enable the weathering agencies to liberate freely and 
vigorously the plant-food of the soil grains; (5) the 
small annual crops; (6) the plowing under of the 
header straw, and (7) the activity of bacteria that 
gather nitrogen directly from the air. 

Methods of conserving soil-fertility 

In view of the comparatively small annual crops 
that characterize dry-farming it is not wholly im- 



MAINTAINING THE SOIL FERTILITY 293 

possible that the factors above discussed, if properly 
applied, could liberate the latent plant-food of the 
soil and gather all necessary nitrogen for the plants. 
Such an equilibrium, could it once be established, 
would possibly continue for long periods of time, but 
in the end would no doubt lead to disaster; for, 
unless the very cornerstone of modern agricultural 
science is unsound, there will be ultimately a dimi- 
nution of crop producing power if continuous crop- 
ping is practiced without returning to the soil a goodly 
portion of the elements of soil fertility taken from it. 
The real purpose of modern agricultural research is 
to maintain or increase the productivity of our lands ; 
if this cannot be done, modern agriculture is essen- 
tially a failure. Dry-farming, as the newest and 
probably in the future one of the greatest divisions 
of modern agriculture, must from the beginning 
seek and apply processes that will insure steadiness 
in the productive power of its lands. Therefore, 
from the very beginning dry-farmers must look 
towards the conservation of the fertility of their 
soils. 

The first and most rational method of maintaining 
the fertility of the soil indefinitely is to return to the 
soil everything that is taken from it. In practice 
this can be done only by feeding the products of the 
farm to live stock and returning to the soil the ma- 
nure, both solid and liquid, produced by the animals. 
This brings up at once the much discussed question 



294 



DRY-FARMING 



of the relation between the Uve stock industry and 
dry-farming. While it is undoubtedly true that no 
system of agriculture will be wholly satisfactory 
to the farmer and truly beneficial to the state^ unless 




Fig. 70. Dry-farm beardless barley. New Mexico, 1909. 

it is connected definitely with the production of 
live stock, yet it must be admitted that the present 
prevailing dry-farm conditions do not always favor 
comfortable animal life. For instance, over a large 



CONSERVING THE SOIL FERTILITY 295 

portion of the central area of the dry-farm territory 
the dry-farms are at considerable distances from 
running or well water. In many cases, water is 
hauled eight or ten miles for the supply of the men 
and horses engaged in farming. Moreover, in these 
drier districts, only certain crops, carefully culti- 
vated, will yield profitably, and the pasture and the 
kitchen garden are practical impossibilities from 
an economic point of view. Such conditions, though 
profitable dry-farming is feasible, preclude the 
existence of the home and the barn on or even near 
the farm. When feed must be hauled many miles, 
the profits of the live stock industry are materially 
reduced and the dry-farmer usually prefers to grow 
a crop of wheat, the straw of which may be plowed 
under the soil to the great advantage of the follow- 
ing crop. In dry-farm districts where the rainfall 
is higher or better distributed, or where the ground 
water is near the surface, there should be no reason 
why dry-farming and live stock should not go hand 
in hand. Wherever water is within reach, the home- 
stead is also possible. The recent development of 
the gasoline motor for pumping purposes makes 
possible a small home garden wherever a little water 
is available. The lack of water for culinary purposes 
is really the problem that has stood between the 
joint development of dry-farming and the live stock 
industry. The whole matter, however, looks much 
more favorable to-day, for the efforts of the Federal 



296 DRY-FARMING 

and state governments have succeeded in discovering 
numerous subterranean sources of water in dry-farm 
districts. In addition, the development of small 
irrigation systems in the neighborhood of dry-farm 
districts is helping the cause of the live stock industry. 
At the present time, dry-farming and the live stock 
industry are rather far apart, though undoubtedly 
as the desert is conquered they will become more 
closely associated. The question concerning the 
best maintenance of soil-fertility remains the same; 
and the ideal way of maintaining fertility is to return 
to the soil as much as is possible of the plant-food 
taken from it by the crops, which can best be accom- 
plished by the development of the business of keep- 
ing live stock in connection with dry-farming. 

If live stock cannot be kept on a dry-farm, the 
most direct method of maintaining soil-fertility is 
by the application of commercial fertilizers. This 
practice is followed extensively in the Eastern states 
and in Europe. The large areas of dry-farms and 
the high prices of commercial fertilizers will make 
this method of manuring impracticable on dry-farms, 
and it may be dismissed from thought until such a 
day as conditions, especially with respect to price 
of nitrates and potash, are materially changed. 

Nitrogen, which is the most important plant-food 
that may be absent from dry-farm soils, may be 
secured by the proper use of leguminous crops. All 
the pod-bearing plants commonly cultivated, such as 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS AND FERTILITY 297 

peas, beans, vetch, clover, and lucern, are able to 
secure large quantities of nitrogen from the air 
through the activity of bacteria that live and grow 
on the roots of such plants. The leguminous crop 
should be sown in the usual way, and when it is well 
past the flowering stage should be plowed into the 
ground. Naturally, annual legumes, such as peas 
and beans, should be used for this purpose. The 
crop thus plowed under contains much nitrogen, 
which is gradually changed into a form suitable for 
plant assimilation. In addition, the acid substances 
produced in the decay of the plants tend to liberate 
the insoluble plant-foods and the organic matter is 
finally changed into humus. In order to maintain a 
proper supply of nitrogen in the soil the dry-farmer 
will probably soon find himself obliged to grow^, every 
five years or oftener, a crop of legumes to be plowed 
under. 

Non-leguminous crops may also be plowed under 
for the purpose of adding organic matter and humus 
to the soil, though this has little advantage over the 
present method of heading the grain and plowing 
under the high stubble. The header system should 
be generally adopted on wheat dry-farms. On 
farms where corn is the chief crop, perhaps more 
importance needs to be given to the supply of organic 
matter and humus than on wheat farms. The 
occasional plowing under of leguminous crops would 
be the most satisfactory method. 



298 DRY-FARMING 

The persistent application of the proper cultural 
methods of dry-farming will set free the most im- 
portant plant-foods, and on well-cultivated farms 
nitrogen is the only element likely to be absent in 
serious amounts. 

The rotation of crops on dry-farms is usually 
advocated in districts like the Great Plains area, 
where the annual rainfall is over fifteen inches and 
the major part of the precipitation comes in spring 
and summer. The various rotations ordinarily 
include one or more crops of small grains, a hoed 
crop like corn or potatoes, a leguminous crop, and 
sometimes a fallow 3^ear. The leguminous crop is 
grown to secure a fresh supply of nitrogen ; the hoed 
crop, to enable the air and sunshine to act thoroughly 
on the soil grains and to liberate plant-food, such as 
potash and phosphoric acid ; and the grain crops to 
take up plant-food not reached by the root systems 
of the other plants. The subject of proper rotation 
of crops has always been a difficult one, and very 
little information exists on it as practiced on dry- 
farms. Chilcott has done considerable work on 
rotations in the Great Plains district, but he frankly 
admits that many years of trial will be necessary for 
the elucidation of trustworthy principles. Some of 
the best rotations found by Chilcott up to the present 

are: — 

Corn — Wheat — Oats 
Barley — Oats — Corn 
Fallow — Wheat — Oats 



ROTATIONS AND SOIL FERTILITY 



299 



Rosen states that rotation is very commonly prac- 
ticed in the dry sections of southern Russia, usually 
including an occasional summer fallow. As a type 
of an eight-year rotation practiced at the Poltava 




Fig. 71. Dry-farm corn. Rosebud Co., Montana, 1909. Cut for for- 
age. Yield, 9.4 tons well-cured fodder. 

Station, the following is given: (1) Summer tilled 
and manured ; (2) winter wheat ; (3) hoed crop ; 
(4) spring wheat ; (5) summer fallow ; (6) winter 
rye ; (7) buckwheat or an annual legume ; (8) oats. 
This rotation, it may be observed, includes the grain 
crop, hoed crop, legume, and fallow every four years. 
As has been stated elsewhere, any rotation in dry- 
farming which does not include the summer fallow 



300 DRY-FARMING 

at least every third or fourth year is hkely to be 
dangerous in years of deficient rainfall. 

This review of the question of dry-farm fertility 
is intended merely as a forecast of coming develop- 
ments. At the present time soil-fertility is not giving 
the dry-farmers great concern^ but as in the countries 
of abundant rainfall the time will come when it will 
be equal to that of water conservation, unless indeed 
the dry-farmers heed the lessons of the past and adopt 
from the start proper practices for the maintenance 
of the plant-food stored in the soil. The principle 
explained in Chapter IX, that the amount of water 
required for the production of one pound of water 
diminishes as the fertility increases, shows the inti- 
mate relationship that exists between the soil-fer- 
tility and the soil-water and the importance of main- 
taining dry-farm soils at a high state of fertility. 



CHAPTER XV 

IMPLEMENTS FOR DRY-FARMING 

Cheap land and relatively small acre yields 
characterize dry-farming. Consequently, larger 
areas must be farmed for a given return than in 
humid farming, and the successful pursuit of dry- 
farming compels the adoption of methods that 
enable a man to do the largest amount of effective 
work with the smallest expenditure of energy. The 
careful observations made by Grace, in Utah, lead to 
the belief that, under the conditions prevailing 
in the intermountain country, one man with four 
horses and a sufficient supply of machinery can farm 
160 acres, half of which is summer-fallowed every 
year ; and one man may, in favorable seasons under 
a carefully planned system, farm as much as 200 
acres. If one man attempts to handle a larger farm, 
the work is likely to be done in so slipshod a manner 
that the crop yield decreases and the total returns 
are no larger than if 200 acres had been well tilled. 

One man with four horses would be unable to 
handle even 160 acres were it n(jt for the posses- 
sion of modern machinery; and dry-farming, more 
than any other system of agriculture, is dependent 

301 



302 DRY-FARMING 

for its success upon the use of proper implements of 
tillage. In fact^ it is very doubtful if the reclama- 
tion of the great arid and semiarid regions of the 
world would have been possible a few decades ago, 
before the invention and introduction of labor-sav- 
ing farm machinery. It is undoubtedly further a fact 
that the future of dry-farming is closely bound up 
with the improvements that may be made in farm 
machinery. Few of the agricultural implements on 
the market to-day have been made primarily for 
dry-farm conditions. The best that the dry-farmer 
can do is to adapt the implements on the market 
to his special needs. Possibly the best field of in- 
vestigation for the experiment stations and inventive 
minds in the arid region is farm mechanics as applied 
to the special needs of dry-farming. 

Clearing and breaking 

A large portion of the dry-farm territory of the 
United States is covered with sagebrush and related 
plants. It is always .a difficult and usually an ex- 
pensive problem to clear sagebrush land, for the 
shrubs are frequently from two to six feet high, cor- 
respondingly deep-rooted, with very tough wood. 
When the soil is dry, it is extremely difficult to pull 
out sagebrush, and of necessity much of the clearing 
must be done during the dry season. Numerous 
devices have been suggested and tried for the purpose 



304 DRY-FARMING 

of clearing sagebrush land. One of the oldest and 
also one of the most effective devices is two parallel 
railroad rails connected with heavy iron chains and 
used as a drag over the sagebrush land. The sage 
is caught by the two rails and torn out of the ground. 
The clearing is fairly complete, though it is generally 
necessary to go over the ground two or three times 
before the work is completed. Even after such 
treatment a large number of sagebrush clumps, 
found standing over the field, must be grubbed up 
with the hoe. Another and effective device is the 
so-called ^^mankiller." This implement pulls up the 
sage very successfully and drops it at certain definite 
intervals. It is, however, a very dangerous imple- 
ment and frequently results in injury to the men 
who work it. Of recent years another device has 
been tried with a great deal of success. It is made 
like a snow plow of heavy railroad irons to which 
a number of large steel knives have been bolted. 
Neither of these implements is wholly satisfactory, 
and an acceptable machine for grubbing sagebrush 
is yet to be devised. In view of the large expense 
attached to the clearing of sagebrush land such a 
machine would be of great help in the advancement 
of dry-farming. 

Away from the sagebrush country the virgin dry- 
farm land is usually covered with a more or less dense 
growth of grass, though true sod is seldom found 
under dry-farm conditions. The ordinary breaking 



PLOWS FOR DRY-FARMING 



305 



plow, characterized by a long sloping moldboard, is 
the best known implement for breaking all kinds of 
sod. (See Fig. 75 a.) Where the sod is very light, as 
on the far western prairies, the more ordinary forms 
of plows may be used. In still other sections, the 
dry-farm land is covered with a scattered growth of 
trees, frequently pinion pine and cedars, and in Ari- 
zona and New Mexico the mesquite tree and cacti are 
to be removed. Such clearing has to be done in ac- 
cordance with the special needs of the locality. 



Plowing 

Plowing, or the turning over of the soil to a depth 
of from seven to ten inches for every crop, is a funda- 
mental operation of dry-farming. The plow, there- 




FiG. 73. Parts of modern plow. 

fore, becomes one of the most important implements 
on the dry-farm. Though the plow as an agricul- 
tural implement is of great antiquity, it is only within 
the last one hundred years that it has attained its 
present perfection. It is a question even to-day, in 



306 



DRY-FARMING 



the minds of a great many students^ whether the 
modern plow should not be replaced by some machine 
even more suitable for the proper turning and stirring 
of the soil. The moldboard plow is, everything con- 
sidered, the most satisfactory plow for dry-farm 




Fig. 74. Sulky plow. 

purposes. A plow with a moldboard possessing a 
short abrupt curvature is generally held to be the 
most valuable for dry-farm purposes, since it pul- 
verizes the soil most thoroughly, and in dry-farming 
it is not so important to turn the soil over as to 
crumble and loosen it thoroughly. The various plow 
bottoms are shown in Figure 75. Naturally, since 
the areas of dry-farms are very large, the sulky or 
riding plow is the only kind to be used. The same 
may be said of all other dry-farm implements. As 
far as possible, they should be of the riding kind, 
since in the end it means economy from the resulting 
saving of energy. (See Fig. 74.) 



PLOWS FOR DRY-FARMING 



307 



The disk plow has recently come into prominent 
use throughout the land. It consists, as is well 
known, of one or more large disks which are believed 




Fig. 75. Plow bottoms. 

to cause a smaller draft, as they cut into the ground, 
than the draft due to the sliding friction upon the 
moldboard. Davidson and Chase say, however, 
that the draft of a disk plow is often heavier in propor- 
tion to the work done and the plow itself is more 




Fig. 76. Plow with interchangeable moldboard and share. 

clumsy than the moldboard plow. For ordinary dry- 
farm purposes the disk plow has no advantage over 
the modern moldboard plow. Many of the dry-farm 
soils are of a heavy clay and become very sticky dur- 
ing certain seasons of the year. In such soils the disk 
plow is very useful. It is also true that dry-farm 



308 DRY-FARMING 

soils^ subjected to the intense heat of the western sun, 
become very hard. In the handling of such soils the 
disk plow has been found to be most useful. The 
common experience of dry-farmers is that when 
sagebrush lands have been cleared, the first plowing 
can be most successfully done with the disk plow, but 




Fig. 77. Disk plow. 

that after the first crop has been harvested, the 
stubble land can be best handled with the moldboard 
plow. All this, however, is yet to be subjected to 
further tests. (See Fig. 77.) 

While subsoiling results in a better storage reser- 
voir for water and consequently makes dry-farming 
more secure, yet the high cost of the practice will 
probably never make it popular. Subsoiling is ac- 
complished in two ways : either by an ordinary mold- 
board plow which follows the plow in the plow fur- 
row and thus turns the soil to a greater depth, or by 
some form of the ordinary subsoil plow. In general, 



PLOWS FOR DRY-FARMING 309 

the subsoil plow is simply a vertical piece of cutting 
iron, down to a depth of ten to eighteen inches, at the 
bottom of which is fastened a triangular piece of iron 
like a shovel, which, when pulled through the ground, 
tends to loosen the soil to the full depth of the plow. 




Fig. 78. Subsoil plow. 

The subsoil plow does not turn the soil; it simply 
loosens the soil so that the air and plant roots can 
penetrate to greater depths. (See Fig. 78.) 

In the choice of plows and their proper use the dry- 
farmer must be guided wholly by the conditions under 
which he is working. It is impossible at the present 
time to lay down definite laws stating what plows are 
best for certain soils. The soils of the arid region are 
not well enough known, nor has the relationship 
between the plow and the soil been sufficiently well 
established. As above remarked, here is one of the 
great fields for investigation for both scientific and 
practical men for years to come. 



310 



DRY-FARMING 



Making and 'maintaining a soil-mulch 

After the land has been so well plowed that the 
rains can enter easily, the next operation of impor- 
tance in dry-farming is the making and maintaining of 
a soil-mulch over the ground to prevent the evapora- 
tion of water from the soil. For this purpose some 




Fig. 79. Spike tooth harrow, 

form of harrow is most commonly used. The oldest 
and best-known harrow is the ordinary smoothing har- 
row, which is composed of iron or steel teeth of various 
shapes set in a suitable frame. (See Fig. 79.) For 
dry-farm purposes the implement must be so made as 
to enable the farmer to set the harrow teeth to slant 
backward or forward. It frequently happens that in 
the spring the grain is too thick for the moisture in the 
soil, and it then becomes necessary to tear out some of 
the young plants. For this purpose the harrow teeth 
are set straight or forward and the crop can then be 



HARROWS FOR DRY-FARMING 311 

thinned effectively. At other times it may be observed 
in the spring that the rains and winds have led to 
the formation of a crust over the soil, which must be 
broken to let the plants have full freedom of growth 
and development. This is accomplished by slanting 




Fig. 80. Spring tooth harrow. 

the harrow teeth backward, and the crust may then 
be broken without serious injury to the plants. The 
smoothing harrow is a very useful implement on the 
dry-farm. For following the plow, however, a more 
useful implement is the disk harrow, which is a com- 
paratively recent invention. It consists of a series of 
disks which may be set at various angles with the line 
of traction and thus be made to turn over the soil while 
at the same time pulverizing it. (See Fig. 81.) The 
best dry-farm practice is to plow in the fall and let the 
soil lie in the rough during the winter months. In the 



312 



DRY-FARMING 



spring the land is thoroughly disked and reduced to a 
fine condition. Following this the smoothing harrow 
is occasionally used to form a more perfect mulch. 
When seeding is to be done immediately after plow- 
ing, the plow is followed by the disk harrow, and that 
in turn is followed by the smoothing harrow. The 
ground is then ready for seeding. The disk harrow 




Fig, 81. Disk harrow. 

is also used extensively throughout the summer in 
maintaining a proper mulch. It does its work more 
effectively than the ordinary smoothing harrow and 
is, therefore, rapidly displacing all other forms of 
harrows for the purpose of maintaining a layer of 
loose soil over the dry-farm. There are several kinds 
of disk harrows used by dry-farmers. The full disk 



HARROWS FOR DRY-FARMING 313 

is, everything considered, the most useful. The 
cutaway harrow is often used in cultivating old alfalfa 
land ; the spade disk harrow has a very limited appli- 
cation in dry-farming ; and the orchard disk harrow is 
simply a modification of the full disk harrow whereby 
the farmer is able to travel between the rows of trees 
and so to cultivate the soil under the branches of 
the trees without injuring the leaves or fruit. 

One of the great difficulties in dry-farming con- 
cerns itself with the prevention of the growth of 
weeds or volunteer crops. As has been explained in 
previous chapters, weeds require as much water for 
their growth as wheat or other useful crops. During 
the fallow season, the farmer is likely to be overtaken 
by the weeds and lose much of the value of the fallow 
by losing soil-moisture through the growth of weeds. 
Under the most favorable conditions weeds are dif- 
ficult to handle. The disk harrow itself is not effec- 
tive. The smoothing harrow is of less value. There 
is at the present time great need for some implement 
that will effectively destroy young weeds and prevent 
their further growth. Attempts are being made to 
invent such implements, but up to the present with- 
out great success. Hogenson reports the finding of an 
implement on a western dry-farm constructed by the 
farmer himself which for a number of years has shown 
itself of high efficiency in keeping the dry-farm free 
from weeds. It is shown in P'igure 87. Several 
improved modifications of this implement have been 



314 



DRY-FARMING 



made and tried out on the famous dry-farm district 
at Nephi, Utah, and with the greatest success. Hun- 
ter reports a similar implement in common use on the 
dry-farms of the Columbia Basin. Spring tooth har- 
rows are also used in a small way on the dry-farms. 




Fig. 82. Riding cultivator. 

They have no special advantage over the smoothing 
harrow or the disk harrow, except in places where the 
attempt is made to cultivate the soil between the 
rows of wheat. The curved knife tooth harrow is 
scarcely ever used on dry-farms. It has some value 
as a pulverizer, but does not seem to have any real 
advantage over the ordinary disk harrow. 

Cultivators for stirring the land on which crops are 
growing are not used extensively on dry-farms. Usu- 
ally the spring tooth harrow is employed for this 
work. In dry-farm sections, where corn is grown, 
the cultivator is frequently used throughout the 



CULTIVATORS FOR DRY-FARMING 315 

season. Potatoes grown on dry-farms should be 
cultivated throughout the season, and as the potato 
industry grows in the dry-farm territory there will be 
a greater demand for suitable cultivators. The cul- 
tivators to be used on dry-farms are all of the riding 
kind. They should be so arranged that the horse 
walking between two rows carries a cultivator that 
straddles several rows of plants and cultivates the soil 
between. Disks, shovels, or spring teeth may be used 
on cultivators. There is a great variety on the mar- 
ket, and each farmer will have to choose such as meet 
most definitely his needs. 

The various forms of harrows and cultivators are of 
the greatest importance in the development of dry- 
farming. Unless a proper mulch can be kept over the 
soil during the fallow season, and as far as possible 
during the growing season, first-class crops cannot be 
fully expected. 

The roller is occasionally used in dry-farming, es- 
pecially in the uplands of the Columbia Basin. It is 
a somewhat dangerous implement to use where water 
conservation is important, since the packing resulting 
from the roller tends to draw water upward from the 
lower soil layers to be evaporated into the air. Wher- 
ever the roller is used, therefore, it should be followed 
immediately by a harrow. It is valuable chiefly in 
the localities where the soil is very loose and light and 
needs packing around the seeds to permit perfect 
germination. 



316 



DRY-FARMING 



Subsurface packing 

The subsurface packer recommended so highly by 
Campbell aims to pack the subsoil at a depth of fif- 
teen inches to two feet, while leaving the tppsoil in a 
loose condition. The subsurface packer probably has 
some value in places where the subsoil containing the 




Fig. 83. Riding ctiltivator. 

plowed stubble is somewhat loose. In soils that 
pack naturally throughout the season it cannot exert 
a very beneficial effect. In fact the modern theory 
of dry-farming urges that water should be admitted 
to soil depths far below those reached by the subsur- 
face packer or any other agricultural implement. 
There can, therefore, be no special advantage in es- 
tablishing a packed layer of soil some fifteen or 
twenty inches below the surface. Campbell holds 



DRILLS FOR DRY-FARMING 317 

that the storage reservoir of the soil should be near 
the surface and that the packed soil layer should act 
as a bottom to prevent the water from descending. 
This is in radical opposition to the best experience of 
the day. Undoubtedly, the -subsurface packer does 
have a place on soils which do not permit of a rapid 
and complete decay of stubble and other organic 
matter that may be plowed under from season to 
season. On such soils the packing tendency of the 
subsurface roller may help prevent the loss of water 
and may also assist in furnishing a more uniform 
medium through which plant roots can force their 
way. For these purposes the disk is usually much 
superior. (See Fig. 83.) 

Sowing 

It has already been indicated in previous chapters 
that proper sowing is one of the most important 
operations of the dry-farm, quite comparable in 
importance with plowing or the maintaining of a 
mulch for retaining soil-moisture. The old-fashioned 
method of broadcasting has absolutely no place on a 
dry-farm. The success of dry-farming depends en- 
tirely upon the control that the farmer has of all the 
operations of the farm. By broadcasting, neither the 
quantity of seed used nor the manner of placing the 
seed in the ground can be regulated. Drill culture, 
therefore, introduced by Jethro Tull two hundred 



318 



DRY-FARMING 



years ago, which gives the farmer full control over 
the process of seeding, is the only system to be used. 
The numerous seed drills on the market all employ 
the same principles. Their variations are few and 
simple. In all seed drills the seed is forced into tubes 
so placed as to enable the seed to fall into the fur- 
rows in the ground. The drills themselves are distin- 




FiG. 84. Disk drill and seeder. 



guished almost wholly by the type of the furrow 
opener and the covering devices which are used. The 
seed furrow is opened either by a small hoe or a 
so-called shoe or disk. At the present time it appears 
that the single disk is the coming method of opening 
the seed furrow and that the other methods will 
gradually disappear. As the seed is dropped into 
the furrow thus made it is covered by some device at 
the rear of the machine. One of the oldest methods 
as well as one of the most satisfactory is a series of 



DRILLS FOR DRY-FARMING 319 

chains dragging behind the drill and covering the 
furrow quite completely. It is, however, very de- 




FiG. 85. Drill seeder with press wheel attachment. 

sirable that the soil should be pressed carefully around 
the seed so that germination may begin with the 




Fig. 86. Sulky lister for corn. 



least difficulty whenever the temperature condi- 
tions are right. Most of the drills of the day are, 



320 DRY-FARMING 

therefore, provided with large hght wheels, one for 
each furrow, which press lightly upon the soil and 
force the soil into intimate contact with the seed. 
(See Figs. 84 and 85.) The weakness of such an 
arrangement is that the soil along the drill furrows 
is left somewhat packed, which leads to a ready 
escape of the soil-moisture. Many of the drills are 
so arranged that press wheels may be used at the 
pleasure of the farmer. The seed drill is already a 
very useful implement and is rapidly being made to 
meet the special requirements of the dry-farmer. 
Corn planters are used almost exclusively on dry- 
farms where corn is the leading crop. In principle 
they are very much the same as the press drills. 
Potatoes are also generally planted by machinery. 
Wherever seeding machinery has been constructed, 
based upon the principles of dry-farming, it is a 
very advantageous adjunct to the dry-farm. 

Harvesting 

The immense areas of dry-farms are harvested 
almost wholly by the most modern machinery. For 
grain, the harvester is used almost exclusively in the 
districts where the header cannot be used, but wher- 
ever conditions permit, the header is and should be 
used. It has been explained in previous chapters 
how valuable the tall header stubble is when plowed 
under as a means of maintaining the fertihty of the 



HARVESTERS FOR DRY-FARMING 321 

soil. Besides, there is an ease in handling the header 
which is not known with the harvester. There are 
times when the header leads to some waste as, for 
instance, when the wheat is very low and heads are 
missed as the machine passes over the ground. In 
many sections of the dry-farm territory the climatic 
conditions are such that the wheat cures perfectly 
while still standing. In such places the combined 
harvester and thresher is used. The header cuts off 
the heads of the grain, which are passed up into the 
thresher, and bags filled with threshed grain are 
dropped along the path of the machine, while the 
straw is scattered over the ground. Wlierever such a 
machine can be used, it has been found to be econom- 
ical and satisfactory. Of recent years corn stalks 
have been used to better advantage than in the past, 
for not far from one half of the feeding value of the 
corn crop is in the stalks, which up to a few years ago 
were very largely wasted. Corn harvesters are like- 
wise on the market and are quite generally used. It 
was manifestly impossible on large places to harvest 
corn by hand and large corn harvesters have, there- 
fore, been made for this purpose. (See Figs. 50, 51 
and 53.) 

Steam and other motive power 

Recently numerous persons have suggested that the 
expense of running a dry-farm could be materially re- 
duced by using some motive power other than horses. 



322 



DRY-FARMING 



Steam, gasoline, and electricity have all been sug- 
gested. The steam traction engine is already a fairly 
well-developed machine and it has been used for 




Honzontat Plan. 






Fig. 87. Utah dry-farm weeder. 



plowing purposes on many dry-farms in nearly all the 
sections of the dry-farm territory. Unfortunately, 
up to the present it has not shown itself to be very 
satisfactory. First of all it is to be remembered that 
the principles of dry-farming require that the top- 
soil be kept very loose and spongy. The great trac- 
tion engines have very wide wheels of such tremen- 



STEAM IMPLEMENTS FOR DRY-FARMING 323 

dous weight that they press down the soil very com- 
pactly along their path and in that way defeat one of 
the important purposes of tillage. Another objection 
to them is that at present their construction is such as 
to result in continual breakages. While these break- 
ages in themselves are small and inexpensive, they 
mean the cessation of all farming operations during 
the hour or day required for repairs. A large crew 
of men is thus left more or less idle, to the serious in- 
jury of the work and to the great expense of the 
owner. Undoubtedly, the traction engine has a 
place in dry-farming, but it has not yet been perfected 
to such a degree as to make it satisfactory. On heavy 
soils it is much more useful than on light soils. When 
the traction engine works satisfactorily, plowing may 
be done at a cost considerably lower than when 
horses are employed. (See Fig. 72.) 

In England, Germany, and other European coun- 
tries *some of the difficulties connected with plowing 
have been overcome by using two engines on the two 
opposite sides of a field. These engines move syn- 
chronously together and, by means of large cables, 
plows, harrows, or seeders, are pulled back and forth 
over the field. This method seems to give good satis- 
faction on many large estates of the old world. Mac- 
donald reports that such a system is in successful 
operation in the Transvaal in South Africa and is 
doing work there at a very low cost. The large initial 
cost of such a system will, of course, prohibit its use 











a 
o 



blO 
•S 



3 



00 

GO 

6 

M 



POWER IMPLEMENTS FOR DRY-FARMING 325 

except on the very large farms that are being estab- 
Hshed in the dry-farm territory. 

GasoHne engines are also being tried out, but up 
to date they have not shown themselves as possessing 
superior advantages over the steam engines. The 
two objections to them are the same as to the steam 
engine : first, their great weight, which compresses in 
a dangerous degree the topsoil and, secondly, the 
frequent breakages, which make the operation slow 
and expensive. 

Over a great part of the West, water power is 
very abundant and the suggestion has been made 
that the electric energy which can be developed by 
means of water power could be used in the cultural 
operations of the dry-farm. With the development 
of the trolley car which does not run on rails it would 
not seem impossible that in favorable localities elec- 
tricity could be made to serve the farmer in the 
mechanical tillage of the dry-farm. 

The substitution of steam and other energy for 
horse power is yet in the future. Undoubtedly, it 
will come, but only as improvements are made in the 
machines. There is here also a great field for being 
of high service to the farmers who are attempting to 
reclaim the great deserts of the world. As stated at 
the beginning of this chapter, dry-farming would 
probably have been an impossibility fifty or a hundred 
years ago because of the absence of suitable machin- 
ery. The future of dry- farming rests almost wholly, 



IMPLEMENTS FOR DRY-FARMING 327 

SO far as its profits are concerned, upon the develop- 
ment of new and more suitable machinery for the 
tillage of the soil in accordance with the established 
principles of dry-farming. 

Finally, the recommendations made by Merrill may 
here be inserted. A dry-farmer for best work should 
be supplied with the following implements in addition 
to the necessary wagons and hand tools: — 

One Plow. 

One Disk. 

One Smoothing Harrow. 

One Drill Seeder. 

One Harvester or Header. 

One Mowing Machine. 



CHAPTER XVI 

IRRIGATION AND DRY-FARMING 

iRRiGATiON-farming and dry-farming are both 
systems of agriculture devised for the reclamation of 
countries that ordinarily receive an annual rainfall 
of twenty inches or less. Irrigation-farming cannot 
of itself reclaim the arid regions of the world, for the 
available water supply of arid countries when it shall 
have been conserved in the best possible way cannot 
be made to irrigate more than one fifth of the thirsty 
land. This means that under the highest possible 
development of irrigation, at least in the United 
States, there will be five or six acres of unirrigated 
or dry-farm land for every acre of irrigated land. 
Irrigation development cannot possibly, therefore, 
render the dry-farm movement valueless. On the 
other hand, dry-farming is furthered by the develop- 
ment of irrigation farming, for both these systems of 
agriculture are characterized by advantages that 
make irrigation and dry-farming supplementary to 
each other in the successful development of any arid 
region. 

Under irrigation, smaller areas need to be culti- 

328 



IRRIGATION VS. DRY-FARMING 



329 



vated for the same crop returns, for it has been amply 
demonstrated that the acre yields under proper irri- 
gation are very much larger than the best yields under 




Fig. 90. Dry-farm unth flood-water reservoir. Utah. 

the most careful system of dry-farming. Secondly, a 
greater variety of crops may be grown on the irrigated 
farm than on the dry- farm. As has already been 
shown in this volume, only certain drouth resistant 
crops can be grown profitably upon dry-farms, and 
these must be grown under the methods of extensive 
farming. The longer growing crops, including trees, 
succulent vegetables, and a variety of small fruits, 
have not as yet been made to yield profitably under 
arid conditions without the artificial application of 
water. Further, the irrigation-farmer is not largely 
dependent upon the weather and, therefore, carries on 



330 DRY-FARMING 

this work with a feehng of greater security. Of 
course, it is true that the dry years affect the flow of 
water in the canals and that the frequent breaking of 
dams and canal walls leaves the farmer helpless in the 
face of the blistering heat. Yet, all in all, a greater 
feeling of security is possessed by the irrigation- 
farmer than by the dry-farmer. 

Most important, however, are the temperamental 
differences in men which make some desirous of giving 
themselves to the cultivation of a small area of irri- 
gated land under intensive conditions and others to 
dry-farming under extensive conditions. In fact, it 
is being observed in the arid region that men, because 
of their temperamental differences, are gradually sep- 
arating into the two classes of irrigation-farmers and 
dry-farmers. The dry-farms of necessity cover much 
larger areas than the irrigated farms. The land is 
cheaper and the crops are smaller. The methods to 
be applied are those of extensive farming. The prof- 
its on the investment also appear to be somewhat 
larger. The very necessity of pitting intellect against 
the fierceness of the drouth appears to have attracted 
many men to the dry- farms. Gradually, the cer- 
tainty of producing crops on dry-farms from season 
to season is becoming established, and the essential 
difference between the two kinds of farming in the 
arid districts will then be the difference between 
intensive and extensive methods of culture. Men 
will be attracted to one or other of these systems 



IRRIGATION-FARMS AND DRY-FARMS 



331 



of agriculture according to their personal inclina- 
tions. 



The scarcity of water 

For the development of a well-rounded common- 
wealth in an arid region it is, of course, indispensal)le 
that irrigation be practiced, for dry-farming of itself 
will find it difficult to build up populous cities and to 




Fig. 91. Dry-farm homestead, Montana, eleven months after land had 

. been filed upon. 

supply the great variety of crops demanded by the 
modern family. In fact, one of the great problems 
before those engaged in the develoi)ment of dry- 
farming at present is the development of homesteads 



n 



32 DRY-FARMING 



on the dry-farms. A homestead is possible only 
where there is a sufficient amount of free water avail- 
able for household and stock purposes. In the por- 
tion of the dry-farm territory where the rainfall ap- 
proximates twenty inches, this problem is not so very 
difficult, since ground water may be reached easily. 
In the drier portions, however, where the rainfall is 
between ten and fifteen inches, the problem is much 
more important. The conditions that bring the dis- 
trict under the dry-farm designation imply a scarcity 
of water. On few dry-farms is water available for 
the needs of the household and the barns. In the 
Rocky Mountain states numerous dry-farms have 
been developed from seven to fifteen miles from the 
nearest source of water, and the main expense of 
developing these farms has been the hauling of water 
to the farms to supply the needs of the men and beasts 
at work on them. Naturally, it is impossible to es- 
tablish homesteads on the dry-farms unless at least 
a small supply of water is available ; and dry-farming 
will never be what it might be unless happy homes 
can be established upon the farms in the arid regions 
that grow crops without irrigation. To make a dry- 
farm homestead possible enough water must be avail- 
able, first of all, to supply the culinary needs of the 
household. This of itself is not large and, as will be 
shown hereafter, may in most cases be obtained. 
However, in order that the family may possess proper 
comforts, there should be around the homestead 



IRRIGATION IN DRY-FARMING 333 

trees, and shrubs, and grasses, and the family garden. 
To secure these things a certain amount of irrigation 
water is required. It may be added that dry-farms 
on which such homesteads are found as a result of the 
existence of a small supply of irrigation water are 
much more valuable, in case of sale, than equally 
good farms without the possibility of maintaining 
homesteads. Moreover, the distinct value of irriga- 
tion in producing a large acre yield makes it desirable 
for the farmer to use all the water at his disposal for 
irrigation purposes. No available water should be 
allowed to flow away unused. 

Available surface water 

The sources of water for dry-farms fall readily 
into classes : surface waters and subterranean waters. 
The surface waters, wherever they may be obtained, 
are generally the most profitable. The simplest 
method of obtaining water in an irrigated region is 
from some irrigation canal. In certain districts of 
the intermountain region where the dry farms lie 
above the irrigation canals and the irrigated lands 
below, it is comparatively easy for the farmers to 
secure a small but sufficient amount of water from 
the canal by the use of some pumping device that 
will force the water through the pipes to the home- 
stead. The dry-farm area that may be so supplied 
by irrigation canals is, however, very limited and is 



334 DRY-FARMING 

not to be considered seriously in connection with 
the problem. 

A much more important method, especially in 
the mountainous districts, is the utilization of the 
springs that occur in great numbers over the whole 
dry-farm territory. Sometimes these springs are 
very small indeed, and often, after development by 
tunneling into the side of the hill, yield only a tri- 
fling flow. Yet, when this water is piped to the home- 
stead and allowed to accumulate in small reservoirs 
or cisterns, it may be amply sufficient for the needs 
of the family and the live stock, besides leaving a 
surplus for the maintenance of the lawn, the shade 
trees, and the family garden. Many dry-farmers 
in the intermountain country have piped water 
seven or eight miles from small springs that were 
considered practically worthless and thereby have 
formed the foundations for small village communi- 
ties. 

Of perhaps equal importance with the utilization 
of the naturally occurring springs is the proper con- 
servation of the flood waters. As has been stated 
before, arid conditions allow a very large loss of the 
natural precipitation as run-off. The numerous 
gullies that characterize so many parts of the dry- 
farm territory are evidences of the number and 
vigor of the flood waters. The construction of small 
reservoirs in proper places for the purpose of catch- 
ing the flood waters will usually enable the farmer 



336 DRY-FARMING 

to supply himself with all the water needed for the 
homestead. Such reservoirs may already be found 
in great numbers scattered over the whole western 
America. As dry-farming increases their numbers 
will also increase. 

When neither canals^ nor springs, nor flood waters 
are available for the supply of water, it is yet possible 
to obtain a limited supply by so arranging the roof 
gutters on the farm buildings that all the water that 
falls on the roofs is conducted through the spouts 
into carefully protected cisterns or reservoirs. A 
house thirty by thirty feet, the roof of which is so 
constructed that all that water that falls upon it is 
carried into a cistern will yield annually under a 
a rainfall of fifteen inches a maximum amount of 
water equivalent to about 8800 gallons. Allowing 
for the unavoidable waste due to evaporation, this 
will yield enough to supply a household and some 
live stock with the necessary water. In extreme 
cases this has been found to be a very satisfactory 
practice, though it is the one to be resorted to only 
in case no other method is available. 

It is indispensable that some reservoir be provided 
to hold the surface water that may be obtained until 
the time it may be needed. The water coming con- 
stantly from a spring in summer should be applied 
to crops only at certain definite seasons of the year. 
The flood waters usually come at a time when plant 
growth is not active and irrigation is not needed. 



RESERVOIRS FOR DRY-FARMING 337 

The rainfall also in many districts comes most largely 
at seasons of no or little plant growth. Reservoirs 
must, therefore, be provided for the storing of the 
water until the periods when it is demanded by 
crops. Cement-lined cisterns are quite common, 
and in many places cement reservoirs have been 
found profitable. In other places the occurrence of 
impervious clay has made possible the establishment 
and construction of cheap reservoirs. The skillful 
and permanent construction of reservoirs is a very 
important subject. Reservoir building should be 
undertaken only after a careful study of the prevail- 
ing conditions and under the advice of the state or 
government officials having such work in charge. 
In general, the first cost of small reservoirs is usually 
somewhat high, but in view of their permanent serv- 
ice and the value of the water to the dry-farm they 
pay a very handsome interest on the investment. 
It is always a mistake for the dry-farmer to postpone 
the construction of a reservoir for the storing of the 
small quantities of water that he may possess, in 
order to save a little money. Perhaps the greatest 
objection to the use of the reservoirs is not their 
relatively high cost, but the fact that since they are 
usually small and the water shallow, too large a pro- 
portion of the water, even under favorable conditions, 
is lost by evaporation. It is ordinarily assumed 
that one half of the water stored in small reservoirs 
throughout the vear is lost by direct evaporation. 



338 DRY-FARMING 

Available subterranean water 

Where surface waters are not readily available, the 
subterranean water is of first importance. It is gen- 
erally known that, underlying the earth's surface at 
various depths, there is a large quantity of free water. 
Those living in humid climates often overestimate 
the amount of water so held in the earth's crust, 
and it is probably true that those living in arid regions 
underestimate the quantity of water so found. 
The fact of the matter seems to be that free water 
is found everywhere under the earth's surface. 
Those familiar with the arid West have frequently 
been surprised by the frequency with which water 
has been found at comparatively shallow depths in 
the most desert locations. Various estimates have 
been made as to the quantity of underlying water. 
The latest calculation and perhaps the most reliable 
is that made by Fuller, who, after a careful analysis 
of the factors involved, concludes that the total 
free water held in the earth's crust is equivalent to a 
uniform sheet of water over the entire surface of the 
earth ninety-six feet in depth. A quantity of water 
thus held would be equivalent to about one hun- 
dredth part of the whole volume of the ocean. Even 
though the thickness of the water sheet under arid 
soils is only half this figure there is an amount, if 
it could be reached, that would make possible the 
establishment of homesteads over the whole dry- 



WELL WATER FOR DRY-FARMING 339 

farm territory. One of the main efforts of the day 
is the determination of the occurrence of the sub- 
terranean waters in the dry-farm territory. 

Ordinary dug wells frequently reach water at com- 
paratively shallow depths. Over the cultivated 




Fig. 93. Some dry-farm products. Montana. 

Utah deserts water is often found at a depth of 
twenty-five or thirty feet, though many wells dug 
to a depth of one hundred and seventy-five and two 
hundred feet have failed to reach water. It may be 
remarked in this connection that even where the 
distance to the water is small, the piped well has 
been found to be superior to the dug well. Usually, 



340 DRY-FARMING 

water is obtained in the dry-farm territory by driving 
pipes to comparatively great depths, ranging from 
one hundred feet to over one thousand feet. At 
such depths water is nearly always found. Often 
the geological conditions are such as to force the 
water up above the surface as artesian wells, though 
more often the pressure is simply sufficient to bring 
the water within easy pumping distance of the sur- 
face. In connection with this subject it must be 
said that many of the subterranean waters of the 
dry-farm territory are of a saline character. The 
amount of substances held in solution varies largely, 
but frequently is far above the limits of safety for 
the use of man or beast or plants. The dry-farmer 
who secures a well of this type should, therefore, 
be careful to have a proper examination made of the 
constituents of the water before ordinary use is made 
of it. 

. Now, as has been said, the utilization of the sub- 
terranean waters of the land is one of the living 
problems of dry-farming. The tracing out of this 
layer of water is very difficult to accomplish and 
cannot be done by individuals. It is a work that 
properly belongs to the state and national govern- 
ment. The state of Utah, which was the pioneer in 
appropriating money for dry-farm experiments, 
also led the way in appropriating money for the 
securing of water for the dry-farms from subter- 
ranean sources. The work has been progressing in 



WATER FOR DRY-FARMS 341 

Utah since 1905, and water has been secured in the 
most unpromising locahties. The most remarkable 
instance is perhaps the finding of water at a depth of 
about five hundred and fifty feet in the unusually 
dry Dog Valley located some fifteen miles west of 
Nephi. 

Pumping water 

The use of small quantities of water on the dry- 
farms carries with it, in most cases, the use of 
small pumping plants to store and to distribute the 
water properly. Especially, whenever subterranean 
sources of water are used and the water pressure is 
not sufficient to throw the water above the ground, 
pumping must be resorted to. The pumping of 
water for agricultural purposes is not at all new. 
According to Fortier, two hundred thousand acres 
of land are irrigated with water pumped from driven 
wells in the state of California alone. Seven hun- 
dred and fifty thousand acres are irrigated by pump- 
ing in the United States, and Mead states that there 
are thirteen million acres of land in India which are 
irrigated by water pumped from subterranean 
sources. The dry-farmer has a choice among several 
sources of power for the operation of his pumping 
plant. In localities where winds are frequent and 
of sufficient strength windmills furnish cheap and 
effective power, especially where the lift is not very 
great. The gasoline engine is in a state of consider- 



342 DRY-FARMING 

able perfection and may be used economically where 
the price of gasoline is reasonable. Engines using 
crude oil may be most desirable in the localities where 
oil wells have been found. As the manufacture of 
alcohol from the waste products of the farms becomes 
established, the alcohol-burning engine could become 
a very important one. Over nearly the whole of the 
dry-farm territory coal is found in large quantities, 
and the steam engine fed by coal is an important 
factor in the pumping of water for irrigation pur- 
poses. Further, in the mountainous part of the dry- 
farm territory water power is very abundant. Only 
the smallest fraction of it has as yet been harnessed 
for the generation of the electric current. As electric 
generation increases, it should be comparatively 
easy for the farmer to secure sufficient electric power 
to run the pump. This has already become an 
established practice in districts where electric power 
is available. 

During the last few years considerable work has 
l)een done to determine the feasibility of raising water 
for irrigation by pumping. Fortier reports that 
successful results have been obtained in Colorado, 
Wyoming, and Montana. He declares that a good 
type of windmill located in a district where the 
average wind movement is ten miles per hour can 
lift enough water twenty feet to irrigate five acres 
of land. Wherever the water is near the surface 
this should be easy of accomplishment. Vernon, 



RAISING THE WATER 343 

Lovett, and Scott, who worked under New Mexico 
conditions, have reported that crops can be produced 
profitably by the use of water raised to the surface for 
irrigation. Fleming and Stoneking, who conducted 
very careful experiments on the subject in New 
Mexico, found that the cost of raising through one foot 
a quantity of water corresponding to a depth of one 




Fig. 94. Dry-farm vegetable garden. Dawsou Co., Montana. 

foot over one acre of land varied from a cent and an 
eighth to nearly twenty-nine cents, with an average 
of a httle more than ten cents. This means that the 
cost of raising enough water to cover one acre to a 
depth of one foot through a distance of forty feet 
would average $4.36. This includes not only the 
cost of the fuel and supervision of the pump but the 
actual deterioration of the plant. Smith investi- 



344 DRY-FARMING 

gated the same problem under Arizona conditions 
and found that it cost approximately seventeen cents 
to raise one acre foot of water to a height of one foot. 
A very elaborate investigation of this nature was 
conducted in California by Le Conte and Tait. They 
studied a large number of pumping plants in actual 
operation under California conditions, and deter- 
mined that the total cost of raising one acre foot of 
water one foot was, for gasoline power, four cents 
and upward; for electric power, seven to sixteen 
cents, and for steam, four cents and upward. Mead 
has reported observations on seventy-two windmills 
near Garden City, Kansas, which irrigated from 
one fourth to seven acres each at a cost of seventy- 
five cents to $6 per acre. All in all, these results 
justify the belief that water may be raised profitably 
.by pumping for the purpose of irrigating crops. 
When the very great value of a little water on a 
dry-farm is considered, the figures here given do not 
seem at all excessive. It must be remarked again 
that a reservoir of some sort is practically indispen- 
sable in connection with a pumping plant if the irri- 
gation water is to be used in the best way. 

The use of s?nall quantities of water in irrigation 

Now, it is undoubtedly true that the acre cost of 
water on dry-farms, where pumping plants or similar 
devices must be used with expensive reservoirs, is 



QUANTITY OF WATER IN IRRIGATION 345 

much higher than when water is obtained from grav- 
ity canals. It is, therefore, important that the costly 
water so obtained be used in the most economical 
manner. This is doubly important in view of the 
fact that the water supply obtained on dry-farms 
is always small and insufficient for all that the farmer 
would like to do. Indeed, the profit in storing and 
pumping water rests largely upon the economical 
application of water to crops. This necessitates the 
statement of one of the first principles of scientific 
irrigation practices, namely, that the yield of a crop 
under irrigation is not proportional to the amount 
of water applied in the form of irrigation water. In 
other words, the water stored in the soil by the 
natural precipitation and the water that falls during 
the spring and summer can either mature a small 
crop or bring a crop near maturity. A small amount 
of water added in the form of irrigation water at the 
right time will usually complete the work and pro- 
duce a well-matured crop of large yield. Irrigation 
should only be supplemented to the natural precip- 
itation. As more irrigation water is added, the 
increase in yield becomes smaller in proportion to 
the amount of water employed. This is clearly 
shown by the following table, which is taken from 
some of the irrigation experiments carried on at the 
Utah Station : — 



346 



DRY-FARMING 



Effect of Varying Irrigations on Crop Yields per 

Acre 



Depth of 

Water 

Applied 

(Inches) 

5.0 
7.5 
10.0 
15.0 
25.0 
35.0 
50.0 



Wheat 


Corn 


Alfalfa 


Potatoes 


(Bushels) 


(Bushels) 


(Pounds) 


(Bushels) 


40 






194 


41 


65 






41 


80 




213 


46 


78 




253 


49 


77 


10,056 


258 


55 




9,142 


291 


60 


84 


13,061 





Sugar 
Beets 
(Tons) 



25 

26 

27 

26 



The soil was a typical arid soil of great depth and 
had been so cultivated as to contain a large quantity 
of the natural precipitation. The first five inches 
of water added to the precipitation already stored 
in the soil produced forty bushels of wheat. Dou- 
bling this amount of irrigation water produced only 
forty-one bushels of wheat. Even with an irrigation 
of fifty inches, or ten times that which produced forty 
bushels, only sixty bushels of wheat, or an increase 
of one half, were produced. A similar variation 
may be observed in the case of the other crops. The 
first lesson to be drawn from this important principle 
of irrigation is that if the soil be so treated as to 
contain at planting time the largest proportion of 
the natural precipitation, — that is, if the ordinary 
methods of dry-farming be employed, — crops will be 



QUANTITY OF WATER 347 

produced with a very small amount of irrigation 
water. Second!}', it follows that it would be a great 
deal better for the farmer who raises wheat, for in- 
stance, to cover ten acres of land with water to a 
depth of five inches than to cover one acre to a depth 
of fifty inches, for in the former case four hundred 
bushels and in the second sixty bushels of wheat 
would be produced. The farmer who desires to 
utilize in the most economical manner the small 
amount of water at his disposal must prepare the 
land according to dry-farm methods and then must 
spread the water at his disposal over a larger area 
of land. The land must be plowed in the fall if the 
conditions permit, and fallowing should be practiced 
wherever possible. If the farmer does not wish to 
fallow his family garden he can achieve equally good 
results by planting the rows twice as far apart as is 
ordinarily the case and by bringing the irrigation 
furrows near the rows of plants. Then, to make 
the best use of the water, he must carefully cover the 
irrigation furrow with dry dirt immediately after 
the water has been applied and keep the whole surface 
well stirred so that evaporation will be reduced to 
a minimum. The beginning of irrigation wisdom 
is always the storage of the natural precipitation. 
When that is done' correctl}^ it is really remarkable 
how far a small amount of irrigation water may be 
made to go. 

Under conditions of water scarcity it is often found 



348 DRY-FARMING 

profitable to carry water to the garden in cement or 
iron pipes so that no water may be lost by seepage 
or evaporation during the conveyance of the water 
from the reservoir to the garden. It is also often 
desirable to convey water to plants through pipes 
laid under the ground, perforated at various intervals 
to allow the water to escape and soak into the soil 
in the neighborhood of the plant roots. All such 
refined methods of irrigation should be carefully 
investigated by the farmer who wants the largest 
results from his limited water supply. Though such 
methods may seem cumbersome and expensive at 
first, yet they will be found, if properly arranged, 
to be almost automatic in their operation and also 
very profitable. 

Forbes has reported a most interesting experiment 
dealing with the economical use of a small water 
supply under the long season and intense water dis- 
sipating conditions of Arizona. The source of supply 
was a well, 90 feet deep. A 3- by 14-inch pump 
cylinder operated by a 12-foot geared windmill 
lifted, the water into a 5000-gallon storage reservoir 
standing on a support 18 feet high. The water was 
conveyed from this reservoir through black iron pipes 
buried 1 or 2 feet from the trees to be watered. 
Small holes in the pipe -3^2" i^^^ i^ diameter allowed 
the water to escape at desirable intervals. This 
irrigation plant was under expert observation for 
considerable time, and it was found to furnish suffi- 




Fig. 95. Windmill aud storage tank. Tucson, Arizona. 



350 DRY-FARMING 

cient water for domestic use for one household, and 
irrigated in addition 61 olive trees, 2 cottonwoods, 
8 pepper trees, 1 date palm, 19 pomegranates, 4 grape- 
vines, 1 fig tree, 9 eucalyptus trees, 1 ash, and 13 mis- 
cellaneous, making a total of 87 useful trees, mainly 
fruit-bearing, and 32 vines and bushes. (See Fig. 95.) 
If such a result can be obtained with a windmill and 
with water ninety feet below the surface under the 
arid conditions of Arizona, there should be little diffi- 
culty in securing sufficient water over the larger por- 
tions of the dry-farm territory to make possible 
beautiful homesteads. 

The dry-farmer should carefully avoid the temp- 
tation to decry irrigation practices. Irrigation and 
dry-farming of necessity must go hand in hand in 
the development of the great arid regions of the world. 
Neither can well stand alone in the building of great 
commonwealths on the deserts of the earth. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE HISTORY OF DRY-FARMING 

The great nations of antiquity lived and prospered 
in arid and semiarid countries. In the more or less 
rainless regions of China, Mesopotamia, Palestine, 
Egypt, Mexico, and Peru, the greatest cities and the 
mightiest peoples flourished in ancient days. Of 
the great civilizations of history only that of Europe 
has rooted in a humid climate. As Hilgard has 
suggested, history teaches that a high civilization 
goes hand in hand with a soil that thirsts for water. 
To-day, current events point to the arid and semi- 
arid regions as the chief dependence of our modern 
civilization. 

In view of these facts it may be inferred that dry- 
farming is an ancient practice. It is improbable that 
intelligent men and women could live in ]\Iesopo- 
tamia, for example, for thousands of years without 
discovering methods whereby the fertile soils could 
be made to produce crops in a small degree at least 
without irrigation. True, the low development of 
implements for soil culture makes it fairly certain 
that dry-farming in those days was practiced only 
with infinite labor and patience ; and that the great 
ancient nations found it much easier to construct 

351 



352 



DRY-FARMING 



great irrigation systems which would make crops 
certain with a minimum of soil tillage, than so thor- 
oughly to till the soil with imperfect implements 
as to produce certain yields without irrigation. Thus 
is explained the fact that the historians of antiquity 




Fig. 96. The last of the breast plows. Modern machinery has made 

dry-farming possible. 

speak at length of the wonderful irrigation systems, 
but refer to other forms of agriculture in a most 
casual manner. While the absence of agricultural 
machinery makes it very doubtful whether dry- 
farming was practiced extensively in olden days, yet 
there can be little doubt of the high antiquity of the 
practice. 

Kearney quotes Tunis as an example o.f the pos- 
sible extent of dry-farming in early historical days. 
Tunis is under an average rainfall of about nine 
inches, and there are no evidences of irrigation having 
been practiced there, yet at El Djem are the ruins 



DRY-FARMING IN TUNIS AND AMERICA 353 

of an amphitheater large enough to accommodate 
sixty thousand persons, and in an area of one hundred 
square miles there were fifteen towns and forty-five 
villages. The country, therefore, must have been 
densely populated. In the seventh century, accord- 
ing to the Roman records, there were two million 
five hundred thousand acres of olive trees growing in 
Tunis and cultivated without irrigation. That these 
stupendous groves yielded well is indicated by the 
statement that, under the Caesars, Tunis was taxed 
three hundred thousand gallons of olive oil annually. 
The production of oil was so great that from one 
town it was piped to the nearest shipping port. 
This historical fact is borne out by the present revival 
of olive culture in Tunis, mentioned in Chapter XII. 
Moreover, many of the primitive peoples of to-day, 
the Chinese, Hindus, Mexicans, and the American In- 
dians, are cultivating large areas of land by dry-farm 
methods, often highly perfected, which have been 
developed generations ago, and have been handed 
down to the present day. Martin relates that the 
Tarahumari Indians of northern Chihuahua, who are 
among the most thriving aboriginal tribes of north- 
ern Mexico, till the soil by dry-farm methods and 
succeed in raising annually large quantities of corn 
and other crops. A crop failure among them is 
very uncommon. The early American explorers, 
especially the Catholic fathers, found occasional 
tribes in various parts of America cultivating the 

2a 



354 DRY-FARMING 

soil successfully without irrigation. All this points 
to the high antiquity of agriculture without irriga- 
tion in arid and semiarid countries. 

Modern dry-farming in the United States 

The honor of having originated modern dry-farm- 
ing belongs to the people of Utah. On July 24th, 
1847; Brigham Young with his band of pioneers 
entered Great Salt Lake Valley, and on that day 
ground was plowed, potatoes planted, and a tiny 
stream of water led from City Creek to cover this 
first farm. The early endeavors of the Utah pioneers 
were devoted almost wholly to the construction of 
irrigation systems. The parched desert ground 
appeared so different from the moist soils of Illinois 
and Iowa, which the pioneers had cultivated, as to 
make it seem impossible to produce crops without 
irrigation. Still, as time wore on, inquiring minds 
considered the possibility of growing crops without 
irrigation; and occasionally when a farmer was 
deprived of his supply of irrigation water through 
the breaking of a canal or reservoir it was noticed 
by the community that in spite of the intense heat 
the plants grew and produced small yields. 

Gradually the conviction grew upon the Utah * 
pioneers that farming without irrigation was not an 
impossibility ; but the small population were kept so 
busy with their small irrigated farms that no serious 



THE HISTORY IN UTAH 355 

attempts at dry-farming were made during the first 
seven or eight years. The pubhcations of those 
days indicate that dry-farming must have been prac- 
ticed occasionally as early as 1854 or 1855. 

About 1863 the first dry-farm experiment of any 
consequence occurred in Utah. A number of emi- 
grants of Scandinavian descent had settled in what is 
now known as Bear River City^ and had turned upon 
their farms the alkali water of Malad Creek, and 
naturally the crops failed. In desperation the starv- 
ing settlers plowed up the sagebrush land, planted 
grain, and awaited results. To their surprise, fair 
yields of grain were obtained, and since that day 
dry-farming has been an established practice in that 
portion of the Great Salt Lake Valley. A year or 
two later, Christopher Layton, a pioneer who helped 
to build both Utah and Arizona, plowed up land on 
the famous Sand Ridge between Salt Lake City 
and Ogden and demonstrated that dry-farm wheat 
could be grown successfully on the deep sandy soil 
which the pioneers had held to be worthless for agri- 
cultural purposes. Since that day the Sand Ridge 
has been famous as a dry-farm district, and ^lajor 
J. W. Powell, who saw the ripened fields of grain in 
the hot dry sand, was moved upon to make special 
mention of them in his volume on the ^'Arid Lands 
of Utah," published in 1879. 

About this time, perhaps a year oi* two later, 
Joshua Salisbury and George L. Farrell began dry- 



356 



DRY-FARi\IING 



farm experiments in the famous Cache Valley, one 
hundred miles north of Salt Lake City. After some 
years of experimentation, with numerous failures, 
these and other pioneers established the practice 
of dry-farming in Cache Valley, which at present 




Fig. 97. Cache Valley, Utah, contains one of the most famous dry-farm 
districts in the United States. The dry-farms lie on the slope 
against the mountains, fifteen miles away. 



is one of the most famous dry-farm sections in 
the United States. In Tooele County, just south 
of Salt Lake City, dry-farming was practiced in 
1877 — how much earlier is not known. In the 
northern Utah counties dry-farming assumed pro- 
portions of consequence only in the later '70's and 



THE HISTORY FARTHER WEST 357 

early '80's. During the '80^s it became a thoroughly 
established and extensive business practice in the 
northern part of the state. 

California, which was settled soon after Utah, 
began dry-farm experiments a little later than Utah. 
The available information indicates that the first 
farming without irrigation in California began in the 
districts of somewhat high precipitation. As the 
population increased, the practice was pushed away 
from the mountains towards the regions of more 
limited rainfall. According to Hilgard, successful 
dry-farming on an extensive scale has been practiced 
in California since about 1868. Olin reports that 
moisture-saving methods were used on the Califor- 
nian farms as early as 1861. Certainly, California 
was a close second in originating dry-farming. 

The Columbia Basin was settled by Marcus Whit- 
man near Walla Walla in 1836, but farming did not 
gain much headway until the railroad pushed through 
the great Northwest about 1880. Those familiar 
with the history of the state of Washington declare 
that dry-farming was in successful operation in iso- 
lated districts in the late 70's. By 1890 it was a well- 
established practice, but received a serious setback 
by the financial panic of 1892-1893. Reall}^ success- 
ful and extensive dry-farming in the Columbia Basin 
began about 1897. The practice of summer fallow 
had begun a year or two before. It is interesting 
to note that both in California and Washington there 



358 DRY-FARMING 

are districts in which dry-farming has been practiced 
successfully under a precipitation of about ten inches, 
whereas in Utah the limit has been more nearly 
twelve inches. 

In the Great Plains area the history of dry-farming 
is hopelessly lost in the greater history of the devel- 
opment of the eastern and more humid parts of that 
section of the country. The great influx of settlers 
on the western slope of the Great Plains area occurred 
in the early '80's and overflowed into eastern Colo- 
rado and Wyoming a few years later. The settlers 
of this region brought with them the methods of 
humid agriculture and because of the relatively 
high precipitation were not forced into the careful 
methods of moisture conservation that had been 
forced upon Utah, California, and the Columbia 
Basin. Consequently, more failures in dry-farming 
are reported from those early days in the Great Plains 
area than from »the drier sections of the far West. 
Dry-farming was practiced very successfully in the 
Great Plains area during the later '80 's. Accord- 
ing to Payne, the crops of 1889 weje very good ; in 
1890, less so; in 1891, better; in 1892 such immense 
crops were raised that the settlers spoke of the 
section as God's country; in 1893, there was a par- 
tial failure, and in 1894 the famous complete failure, 
which was followed in 1895 by a partial failure. 
Since that time fair crops have been produced an- 
nually. The dry years of 1893-1895 drove most 



THE HISTORY ON THE GREAT PLAINS 359 

of the discouraged settlers back to humid sections 
and delayed, by many years, the settlement and 
development of the western side of the Great Plains 
area. That these failures and discouragements were 
due almost entirely to improper methods of soil 
culture is very evident to the present day student of 
dry-farming. In fact, from the very heart of the 
section which was abandoned in 1893-1895 come 
reliable records, dating back to 1886, which show 
successful crop production every year. The famous 
Indian Head experimental farm of Saskatchewan, 
at the north end of the Great Plains area, has an 
unbroken record of good crop yields from 1888, and 
the early '90's were quite as dry there as farther 
south. However, in spite of the vicissitudes of the 
section, dry- farming has taken a firm hold upon the 
Great Plains area and is now a well-established prac- 
tice. 

The curious thing about the development of dry- 
farming in Utah, California, Washington, and the 
Great Plains is that these four sections appear to 
have originated dry-farming independently of each 
other. True, there was considerable communica- 
tion from 1849 onward between Utah and California, 
and there is a possibility that some of the many 
Utah settlers who located in California brought with 
them accounts of the methods of dry- farming as 
practiced in Utah. This, however, cannot be authen- 
ticated. It is very unlikely that the farmers of 



360 DRY-FARMING 

Washington learned dry-farming from their Cah- 
fornia or Utah neighbors, for until 1880 communica- 
tion between Washington and the colonies in Cali- 
fornia and Utah was very difficult, though, of course, 
there was always the possibility of accounts of 
agricultural methods being carried from place to 
place by the moving emigrants. It is fairly certain 
that the Great Plains area did not draw upon the 
far West for dry-farm methods. The climatic 
conditions are considerably different and the Great 
Plains people always considered themselves as 
living in a very humid country as compared with 
the states of the far West. It may be concluded, 
therefore, that there were four independent pioneers 
in dry-farming in United States. Moreover, hun- 
dreds, probably thousands, of individual farmers 
over the semiarid region have practiced dry-farming 
thirty to fifty years with methods developed by 
themselves. 

Although these different dry-farm sections were 
developed independently, yet the methods which 
they have finally adopted are practically identical 
and include deep plowing, unless the subsoil is very 
lifeless; fall plowing; the planting of fall grain 
wherever fall plowing is possible ; and clean summer 
fallowing. About 1895 the word began to pass 
from mouth to mouth that probably nearly all the 
lands in the great arid and semiarid sections of the 
United States could be made to produce profitable 



MR. CAMPBELL AND DRY-FARMING 



361 



crops without irrigation. At first it was merely a 
whisper; then it was talked aloud, and before long 
became the great topic of conversation among the 




Fig. 98. Automobiles of Montana dry-farmers attending a dry-farming 
demonstration on the Fergus Co. substation. Aug. 3, 1909. 

thousands who love the West and wish for its de- 
velopment. Soon it became a National subject of 
discussion. Immediately after the close of the nine- 
teenth century the new awakening had been accom- 
plished and dry-farming was moving onward to 
conquer the waste places of the earth. 



//. W. Campbell 

The history of the new awakening in dry-farming 
cannot well be written without a brief account of the 
work of H. W. Campbell who, in the public mind, 
has become intimately identified with the dry-farm 
movement. H. W. Campbell came from Vermont 



362 DRY-FARMING 

to northern South Dakota in 1879, where in 1882 he 
harvested a banner crop, — twelve thousand bushels 
of wheat from three hundred acres. In 1883, on 
the same farm he failed completely. This experience 
led him to a study of the conditions under which 
wheat and other crops may be produced in the Great 
Plains area. A natural love for investigation and a 
dogged persistence have led him to give his life to a 
study of the agricultural problems of the Great Plains 
area. He admits that his direct inspiration came 
from the work of Jethro Tull, who labored two hun- 
dred years ago, and his disciples. He conceived 
early the idea that if the soil were packed near the 
bottom of the plow furrow, the moisture would 
be retained better and greater crop certainty would 
result. For this purpose the first subsurface packer 
was invented in 1885. Later, about 1895, when his 
ideas had cr3^stallized into theories, he appeared as 
the publisher of Campbell's ^SSoil Culture and Farm 
Journal.'' One page of each issue was devoted to a 
succinct statement of the ^'Campbell Method." It 
was in 1898 that the doctrine of summer tillage was 
begun to be investigated by him. 

In view of the crop failures of the early '90's and 
the gradual dry-farm awakening of the later '90's, 
Campbell's work was received with much interest. 
He soon became identified with the efforts of the 
railroads to maintain demonstration farms for the 
benefit of intending settlers. While Campbell has 



H. W. CAMPBELL 363 

long been in the service of the railroads of the semi- 
arid region, yet it should be said in all fairness 
that the railroads and Mr. Campbell have had for 
their primary object the determination of methods 
whereby the farmers could be made sure of successful 
crops. 

Mr. Campbell's doctrines of soil culture, based on 
his accumulated experience, are presented in Camp- 
bell's ^^Soil Culture Manual," the first edition of which 
appeared about 1904 and the latest edition, consider- 
ably extended, was published in 1907. The 1907 
manual is the latest official word by Mr. Campbell 
on the principles and methods of the ^^ Campbell 
system." The essential features of the system may 
be summarized as follows: The storage of water in 
the soil is imperative for the production of crops in 
dry years. This may be accomplished by proper 
tillage. Disk the land immediately after harvest; 
follow as soon as possible with the plow ; follow the 
plow with the subsurface packer; and follow the 
packer with the smoothing harrow. Disk the land 
again as early as possible in the spring and stir the 
soil deeply and carefully after every rain. Sow 
thinly in the fall with a drill. If the grain is too 
thick in the spring, harrow it out. To make sure of 
a crop, the land should be ^^ summer tilled," which 
means that clean summer fallow should be practiced 
every other year, or as often as may be necessary. 

These methods, with the exception of the subsur- 



364 DRY-FARMING 

face packing, are sound and in harmony with the 
experience of the great dry-farm sections and with 
the principles that are being developed by scientific 
investigation. The ^'Campbell system'' as it stands 
to-day is not the system first advocated by him. 
For instance, in the beginning of his work he advo- 
cated sowing grain in April and in rows so far apart 
that spring tooth harrows could be used for culti- 
vating between the rows. This method, though 
successful in conserving moisture, is too expensive 
and is therefore superseded by the present methods. 
Moreover, his farm paper of 1896, containing a full 
statement of the ^'Campbell method," makes abso- 
lutely no mention of ^^ summer tillage," which is 
now the very keystone of the system. These and 
other facts make it evident that Mr. Campbell has 
very properly modified his methods to harmonize 
with the best experience, but also invalidate the 
claim that he is the author of the dry-farm system. 
A weakness of the ^^ Campbell system" is the contin- 
ual insistence upon the use of the subsurface packer. 
As has already been shown, subsurface packing is of 
questionable value for successful crop production, 
and if valuable, the results may be much more easily 
and successfully obtained by the use of the disk and 
harrow and other similar implements now on the 
market. Perhaps the one great weakness in the 
work of Campbell is that he has not explained the 
principles underlying his practices. His publica- 



EXPERIMENT STATIONS AND DRY-FARMING 365 

tions only hint at the reasons. H. W. Campbell, 
however, has done much to popularize the subject 
of dry-farming and to prepare the way for others. 
His persistence in his work of gathering facts, writing, 
and speaking has done much to awaken interest in 
dry-farming. He has been as ^'a voice in the wil- 
derness" wiio has done much to make possible the 
later and more systematic study of dry-farming. 
High honor should be shown him for his faith in the 
semiarid region, for his keen observation, and his 
persistence in the face of difficulties. He is justly 
entitled to be ranked as one of the great workers in 
behalf of the reclamation, without irrigation, of the 
rainless sections of the world. 

The experiment stations 

The brave pioneers who fought the relentless 
dryness of the Great American Desert from the 
memoral^le entrance of the Mormon pioneers into 
the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847 were not 
the only ones engaged in preparing the way for the 
present day of great agricultural endeavor. Other, 
though perha])s more indirect, forces were also at 
work for the future development of the semiarid 
section. The Morrill Bill of 1862, making it possible 
for agricultural colleges to be created in the various 
states and territories, indicated the beginning of a 
public feeling that modern methods should be applied 



366 DRY-FARMING 

to the work of the farm. The passage in 1887 of the 
Hatch Act^ creating agricultural experiment stations 
in all of the states and territories^ finally initiated 
a new agricultural era in the United States. With 
the passage of this bill, stations for the application of 
modern science to crop production were for the first 
time authorized in the regions of limited rainfall, 
with the exception of the station connected with the 
University of California, where Hilgard from 1872 
had been laboring in the face of great difficulties 
upon the agricultural problems of the state of Cali- 
fornia. During the first few years of their existence, 
the stations were busy finding men and problems. 
The problems nearest at hand were those that had 
been attacked by the older stations founded under 
an abundant rainfall and which could not be of vital 
interest to arid countries. The western stations 
soon began to attack their more immediate problems, 
and it was not long before the question of producing 
crops without irrigation on the great unirrigated 
stretches of the West was discussed among the 
station staffs and plans were projected for a study 
of the methods of conquering the desert. 

The Colorado Station was the first to declare its 
good intentions in the matter of dry-farming, by 
inaugurating definite experiments. By the action 
of the State Legislature of 1893, during the time of 
the great drouth, a substation was established at 
Cheyenne Wells, near the west border of the state 



EXPERIMENT STATIONS AND DRY-FARMING 367 

and within the foothills of the Great Plains area. 
From the summer of 1894 until 1900 experiments 
were conducted on this farm. The experiments were 
not based upon any definite theory of reclamation, 
and consequently the work consisted largely of the 




Fig. 99. Excursionists to dry-farm demonstration, Juab Co., Utah, sub- 
station, 1903. 

comparison of varieties, when soil treatment was the 
all-important problem to be investigated. True, in 
1898, a trial of the ''Campbell method" was under- 
taken. By the time this Station had passed its 
pioneer period and was ready to enter upon more 
systematic investigation, it was closed. Bulletin 
59 of the Colorado Station, published in 1900 by 
J. E. Payne, gives a summary of observations made 
on the Cheyenne Wells substation during seven years. 
This bulletin is the first to deal primarily with the 
experimental work relating to dry-farming in the 



368 DRY-FARMING 

Great Plains area. It does not propose or outline 
any system of reclamation. Several later publica- 
tions of the Colorado Station deal with the problems 
peculiar to the Great Plains. 

At the Utah Station the possible conquest of the 
sagebrush deserts of the Great Basin without irriga- 
tion was a topic of common conversation during the 
years 1894 and 1895. In 1896 plans were presented 
for experiments on the principles of dry-farming. 
Four years later these plans were carried into effect. 
In the summer of 1901, the author and L, A. Merrill 
investigated carefully the practices of the dry-farms 
of the state. On the basis of these observations and 
by the use of the established principles of the relation 
of water to soils and plants, a theory of dry-farming 
was worked out which was published in Bulletin 75 
of the Utah Station in January, 1902. This is prob- 
ably the first systematic presentation of the prin- 
ciples of dry-farming. A year later the Legislature 
of the state of Utah made provision for the establish- 
ment and maintenance of six experimental dry-farms 
to investigate in different parts of the state the pos- 
sibility of dry-farming and the principles under- 
lying the art. These stations, which are still main- 
tained, have done much to stimulate the growth of 
dry-farming in Utah. The credit of first under- 
taking and maintaining systematic experimental 
work in behalf of dry-farming should be assigned to 
the state of Utah. Since dry-farm experiments 



EXPERIMENT STATION HISTORY 369 

began in Utah in 1901, the subject has been a lead- 
ing one in the Station and the College. A large num- 
ber of men trained at the Utah Station and College 
have gone out as investigators of dry-farming under 
state and Federal direction. 

The other experiment stations in the arid and semi- 
arid region were not slow to take up the work for 
their respective states. Fortier and Linficld, who 
had spent a number of years in Utah and had become 
somewhat familiar with the dry-farm practices of 
that state, initiated dry- farm investigations in 
Montana, which have been prosecuted with great 
vigor since that time. Vernon, under the direction 
of Foster, who had spent four years in Utah as 
Director of the Utah Station, initiated the work in 
New Mexico. In Wyoming the experimental study 
of dry-farm lands began by the private enterprise 
of H. B. Henderson and his associates. Later 
V. T. Cooke was placed in charge of the work under 
state auspices, and the demonstration of the feasi- 
bility of dry-farming in Wyoming has been going on 
since about 1907. Idaho has also recently under- 
taken dry-farm investigations. Nevada, once looked 
upon as the only state in the Union incapable of 
producing crops without irrigation, is demonstrating 
by means of state appropriations that large areas 
there are suitable for dry-farming. In Arizona, 
small tracts in this sun-baked state are shown to 
be suitable for dry-farm lands. The Washington 

2b 



370 DRY-FARMING 

Station is investigating the problems of dry-farming 
peculiar to the Columbia Basin, and the staff of 
the Oregon Station is carrying on similar work. In 
Nebraska, some very important experiments on dry- 
farming are being conducted. In North Dakota 
there were in 1910 twenty-one dry-farm demon- 
stration farms. In South Dakota, Kansas, and 
Texa^, provisions are similarly made for dry-farm 
investigations. In fact, up and down the Great 
Plains area there are stations maintained by the 
state or Federal government for the purpose of deter- 
mining the methods under which crops can be pro- 
duced without irrigation. 

At the head of the Great Plains area at Saskatch- 
ewan one of the oldest dry-farm stations in America 
is located (since 1888). In Russia several stations 
are devoted very largely to the problems of dry 
land agriculture. To be especially mentioned for 
the excellence of the work done are the stations at 
Odessa, Cherson, and Poltava. This last-named 
Station has been established since 1886. 

In connection with the work done by the experi- 
ment stations should be mentioned the assistance 
given by the railroads. Many of the railroads own- 
ing land along their respective lines are greatly 
benefited in the selling of these lands by a knowl- 
edge of the methods whereby the lands may be 
made productive. However, the railroads depend 
chiefly for their success upon the increased prosperity 



THE HISTORY OF DRY-FARMING 



371 



of the population along their hnes and for the pur- 
pose of assisting the settlers in the arid West con- 
siderable sums have been expended by the railroads 
in cooperation with the stations for the gathering of 




Fk; 100. Using treadmill lor threshing grain from small plants on one 
of the Utah experimental dry-farms. 

information of value in the reclamation of arid lands 
without irrigation. 

It is through the efforts of the experiment stations 
that the knowledge of the day has been reduced to a 
science of dry-farming. Every student of the sub- 
ject admits that much is yet to be learned before the 
last word has been said concerning the methods of 
dry-farming in reclaiming the waste places of the 
earth. The future of dry-farming rests almost 
wholly upon the energy and intelligence with which 



372 DRY-FARMING 

the experiment stations in this and other countries 
of the world shall attack the special problems con- 
nected with this branch of agriculture. 

The United States Department of Agriculture 

The Commissioner of Agriculture of the United 
States was given a secretaryship in the President's 
Cabinet in 1889. With this added dignity^ new life 
was given to the department. Under the direction 
of J. Sterling Morton preliminary work of great im- 
portance was done. Upon the appointment of James 
Wilson as Secretary of Agriculture, the department 
fairly leaped into a fullness of organization for the in- 
vestigation of the agricultural problems of the coun- 
try. From the beginning of its new growth the 
United States Department of Agriculture has given 
some thought to the special problems of the semiarid 
region, especially that part within the Great Plains. 
Little consideration was at first given to the far West. 
The first method adopted to assist the farmers of 
the plains was to find plants with drouth resistant 
properties. For that purpose explorers were sent 
over the earth, who returned with great numbers of 
new plants or varieties of old plants, some of which, 
such as the durum wheats, have shown themselves 
of great value in American agriculture. The Bureaus 
of Plant Industry, Soils, Weather, and Chemistry have 
all from the first given considerable attention to the 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 373 

problems of the arid region. The Weather Bureau, 
long established and with perfected methods, has 
been invaluable in guiding investigators into regions 
where experiments could be undertaken with some 
hope of success. The Department of Agriculture was 
somewhat slow, however, in recognizing dry-farming 
as a system of agriculture requiring special investiga- 
tion. The final recognition of the subject came with 
the appointment, in 1905, of Chilcott as expert in 
charge of dry-land investigations. At the present 
time an office of dry-land investigations has been estab- 
lished under the Bureau of Plant Industry, which co- 
operates with a number of other divisions of the 
Bureau in the investigation of the conditions and 
methods of dry-farming. A large number of sta- 
tions are maintained by the Department over the 
arid and semiarid area for the purpose of studying 
special problems, many of which are maintained 
in connection with the state experiment stations. 
Nearly all the departmental experts engaged in dry- 
farm investigation have been drawn from the service 
of the state stations and in these stations had re- 
ceived their special training for their work. The 
United States Department of Agriculture has chosen 
to adopt a strong conservatism in the matter of dry- 
farming. It may be wise for the Department, as the 
official head of the agricultural interests of the coun- 
try, to use extreme care in advocating the settlement 
of a region in which, in the past, farmers had failed 



374 DRY-FARMING 

to make a living, yet this conservatism has tended 
to hinder the advancement of dry-farming and has 
placed the departmental investigations of dry- 
farming in point of time behind the pioneer investi- 
gations of the subject. 

The Dry-farming Congress 

As the great dry-farm wave swept over the coun- 
try, the need was felt on the part of experts and lay- 
men of some means whereby dry-farm ideas from all 
parts of the country could be exchanged. Private 
individuals by the thousands and numerous state 
and governmental stations were working separately 
and seldom had a chance of comparing notes and dis- 
cussing problems. A need was felt for some central 
dry-farm organization. An attempt to fill this need 
was made by the people of Denver, Colorado, when 
Governor Jesse F. McDonald of Colorado issued a 
call for the first Dry-farming Congress to be held in 
Denver, January 24, 25, and 26, 1907. These dates 
were those of the annual stock show which had 
become a permanent institution of Denver and, in 
fact, some of those who were instrumental in the 
calling of the Dry-farming Congress thought that it 
was a good scheme to bring more people to the stock 
show. To the surprise of many the Dry-farming 
Congress became the leading feature of the week. 
Representatives were present from practically all 




Fig. 101. The nature of the country to be reclauned in Montana. 



376 DRY-FARMING 

the states interested in dry-farming and from some 
of the humid states. Utah, the pioneer dry-farm 
state, was represented by a delegation second in 
size only to that of Colorado, where the Congress was 
held. The call for this Congress was inspired, in 
part at least, by real estate men, who saw in the dry- 
farm movement an opportunity to relieve themselves 
of large areas of cheap land at fairly good prices. 
The Congress proved, however, to be a businesslike 
meeting which took hold of the questions in earnest, 
and from the very first made it clear that the real 
estate agent was not a welcome member unless he 
came with perfectly honest methods. 

The second Dry-farming Congress was held Jan- 
uary 22 to 25, 1908, in Salt Lake City, Utah, under 
the presidency of Fisher Harris. It was even better 
attended than the first. The proceedings show that 
it was a Congress at which the dry-farm experts of 
the country stated their findings. A large exhibit 
of dry-farm products was held in connection with 
this Congress, where ocular demonstrations of the 
possibility of dry-farming were given any doubting 
Thomas. 

The third Dry-farming Congress was held Feb- 
ruary 23 to 25, 1909, at Cheyenne, Wyoming, under 
the presidency of Governor W. W. Brooks of Wyo- 
ming. An unusually severe snowstorm preceded the 
Congress, which prevented many from attending, 
yet the number present exceeded that at any of 



DRY-FARMING CONGRESS 377 

the preceding Congresses. This Congress was made 
notable by the number of foreign delegates who had 
been sent by their respective countries to investigate 
the methods pursued in America for the reclamation 
of the arid districts. Among these delegates were 
representatives from Canada^ Australia, The Trans- 
vaal, Brazil, and Russia. 

The fourth Congress was held October 26 to 28, 
1909, in Billings, Montana, under the presidency of 
Governor Edwin L. Morris of Montana. The uncer- 
tain weather of the winter months had led the pre- 
vious Congress to adopt a time in the autumn as 
the date of the annual meeting. This Congress 
became a session at which many of the principles 
discussed during the three preceding Congresses 
were crystallized into definite statements and agreed 
upon by workers from various parts of the country. 
A number of foreign representatives were present 
again. The problems of the Northwest and Canada 
were given special attention. The attendance was 
larger than at any of the preceding Congresses. 

The fifth Congress will be held under the presidency 
of Hon. F. W. Mondell of Wyoming at Spokane, 
Washington, during October, 1910. It promises 
to exceed any preceding Congress in attendance 
and interest. 

The Dry- farming Congress has made itself one 
of the most important factors in the development of 
methods for the reclamation of the desert. Its 



378 DRY-FARMING 

published reports are the most vahiable pubHcations 
deahng with dry-land agriculture. Only simple 
justice is done when it is stated that the success of 
the Dry-farming Congress is due in a large measure 
to the untirihg and intelligent efforts of John T. 
Burns, who is the permanent secretary of the Con- 
gress, and who was a member of the first executive 
committee. 

Nearly all the arid and semiarid states have 
organized state dry-farming congresses. The first 
of these was the Utah Dry-farming Congress, organ- 
ized about two months after the first Congress held 
in Denver. The president is L. A. Merrill, one of 
the pioneer dry-farm investigators of the Rockies. 

Jethro Tull {see frontispiece) 

A sketch of the history of dry-farming would be 
incomplete without a mention of the life and work 
of Jethro Tull. The agricultural doctrines of this 
man, interpreted in the light of modern science, are 
those which underlie modern dry-farming. Jethro 
Tull was born in Berkshire, England, 1674, and 
died in 1741. He was a lawyer by profession, but 
his health was so poor that he could not practice his 
profession and therefore spent most of his life in the 
seclusion of a quiet farm. His life work was done in 
the face of great physical sufferings. In spite of 
physical infirmities, he produced a system of agricul- 



THE HISTORY OF DRY-FARMING 379 

ture which, viewed in the Hght of our modern knowl- 
edge, is httle short of marvelous. The chief inspira- 
tion of his system came from a visit paid to south 
of France, where he observed ''near Frontignan and 
Setts, Languedoc'' that the vineyards were carefully 
plowed and tilled in order to produce the largest 
crops of the best grapes. Upon the basis of this 
observation he instituted experiments upon his own 
farm and finally developed his system, which may be 
summarized as follows : The amount of seed to be 
used should be proportional to the condition of the 
land, especially to the moisture that is in it. To 
make the germination certain, the seed should be 
sown by drill methods. Tull, as has already been 
observed, was the inventor of the seed drill which 
is now a feature of all modern agriculture. Plow- 
ing should be done deeply and frequently; two 
plowings for one crop would do no injury and fre- 
quently would result in an increased yield. Finally, 
as the most important principle of the system, the 
soil should be cultivated continually, the argument 
being that by continuous cultivation the fertility 
of the soil would be increased, the water would 
be conserved, and as the soil became more fertile 
less water would be used. To accomplish such culti- 
vation, all crops should be placed in rows rather far 
apart, so far indeed that a horse carrying a culti- 
vator could walk between them. The horse-hoeing 
idea of the system became fundamental and gave 



380 DRY-FARMING 

the name to his famous book, ^^The Horse Hoeing 
Husbandry/' by Jethro Tull, pubHshed in parts from 
1731 to 1741. Tull held that the soil between the 
rows was essentially being fallowed and that the 
next year the seed could be planted between the 
rows of the preceding year and in that way the fer- 
tility could be maintained almost indefinitely. If 
this method were not followed, half of the soil could 
lie fallow every other year and be subjected to con- 
tinuous cultivation. Weeds consume water and 
fertility and, therefore, fallowing and all the culture 
must be perfectly clean. To maintain fertility a 
rotation of crops should be practiced. Wheat should 
be the main grain crop ; turnips the root crop ; and 
alfalfa a very desirable crop. 

It may be observed that these teachings are sound 
and in harmony with the best knowledge of to-day 
and that they are the very practices which are now 
being advocated in all dry-farm sections. This is 
doubly curious because Tull lived in a humid country. 
However, it may be mentioned that his farm consisted 
of a very poor chalk soil, so that the conditions under 
which he labored were more nearly those of an arid 
country than could ordinarily be found in a country 
of abundant rainfall. While the practices of Jethro 
Tull were in themselves very good and in general 
can be adopted to-day, yet his interpretation of the 
principles involved was wrong. In view of the 
limited knowledge of his day, this was only to be 



THE HISTORY OF DRY-FARMING 381 

expected. For instance, he believed so thoroughly 
in the value of cultivation of the soil, that he thought 
it would take the place of all other methods of main- 
taining soil-fertility. In fact, he declared distinctly 
that '' tillage is manure,'' which we are very certain 
at this time is fallacious. Jethro Tull is one of the 
great investigators of the world. In recognition 
of the fact that, though living two hundred years 
ago in a humid country, he was able to develop 
the fundamental practices of soil culture now used 
in dry-farming, the honor has been done his memory 
of placing his portrait as the frontispiece of this 
volume. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE PRESENT STATUS OF DRY-FARMING 

It is difficult to obtain a correct view of the pres- 
ent status of dry-farming, first, because dry-farm 
surveys are only beginning to be made and^ secondly, 
because the area under dry-farm cultivation is in- 
creasing daily by leaps and bounds. All arid and 
semiarid parts of the world are reaching out after 
methods of soil culture whereby profitable crops 
may be produced without irrigation, and the practice 
of dry-farming, according to modern methods, is 
now followed in many diverse countries. The United 
States undoubtedly leads at present in the area 
actually under dry-farming, but, in view of the 
immense dry-farm districts in other parts of the 
world, it is doubtful if the United States will always 
maintain its supremacy in dry-farm acreage. The 
leadership in the development of a science of dry- 
farming will probably remain with the United States 
for years, since the numerous experiment stations 
established for the study of the problems of farming 
without irrigation have their work well under way, 
while, with the exception of one or two stations in 
Russia and Canada, no other countries have experi- 
ment stations for the study of dry-farming in full 

382 



THE PRESENT STATUS IN CALIFORNIA 383 

operation. The reports of the Dry-farming Congress 
furnish practically the only general information as 
to the status of dry-farming in the states and terri- 
tories of the United States and in the countries of 
the world. 

California 

In the state of California dry-farming has been 
firmly established for more than a generation. The 
chief crop of the California dry-farms is wheat, 
though the other grains, root crops, and vegetables 
are also grown without irrigation under a compara- 
tively small rainfall. The chief dry- farm areas are 
found in the Sacramento and the San Joaquin valleys. 
In the Sacramento Valley the precipitation is fairly 
large, but in the San Joaquin Valley it is very small. 
Some of the most successful dry-farms of California 
have produced well for a long succession of years 
under a rainfall of ten inches and less. California 
offers a splendid example of the great danger that 
besets all dry-farm sections. For a generation 
wheat has been produced on the fertile Californian 
soils without manuring of any kind. As a conse- 
quence, the fertility of the soils has been so far de- 
pleted that at present it is difficult to obtain paying 
crops without irrigation on soils that formerly 
yielded bountifully. The living problem of the dry- 
farms in California is the restoration of the fertility 
which has been removed from the soils by unwise 



384 DRY-FARMING 

cropping. All other dry-farm districts should take 
to heart this lesson, for, though crops may be pro- 
duced on fertile soils for one, two, or even three gener- 
ations without manuring, yet the time will come 





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Fig. 102. Threshing in dry-farm district near Moscow, Idaho. 

when plant-food must be added to the soil in return 
for that which has been removed by the crops. 
Meanwhile, California offers, also, an excellent 
example of the possibility of successful dry-farming 
through long periods and under varying climatic 
conditions. In the Golden State dry-farming is a 
fully established practice; it has long since passed 
the experimental stage. 

Columbia River Basin 

The Columbia River Basin includes the state of 
Washington, most of Oregon, the northern and 



THE STATUS IN COLUMBIA BASIN 385 

central part of Idaho, western Montana, and extends 
into British Columbia. It inchides the section often 
called the Inland Empire, which alone covers some 
one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. The 
chief dry-farm crop of this region is wheat ; in fact, 
western Washington or the ''Palouse country'' is 
famous for its wheat -producing powers. The other 
grains, potatoes, roots, and vegetables are also grown 
without irrigation. In the parts of this dry-farm 
district where the rainfall is the highest, fruits of 
many kinds and of- a high quality are grown without 
irrigation. It is estimated that at least two million 
acres are being dry-farmed in this district. Dry- 
farming is fully established in the Columbia River 
Basin. One farmer is reported to have raised in one 
year on his own farm two hundred and fifty thousand 
bushels of wheat. In one section of the district 
where the rainfall for the last few years has been only 
about ten or eleven inches, wheat has been produced 
successfully. This corroborates the experience of 
California, that wheat may really be grown in local- 
ities where the annual rainfall is not above ten inches. 
The most modern methods of dry-farming are fol- 
lowed by the farmers of the Columbia River Basin, 
but little attention has been given to soil-fertility, 
since soils that have been farmed for a generation 
still appear to retain their high productive powers. 
Undoubtedly, however, in this district, as in Cali- 
fornia, the question of soil-fertility will be an impor- 

2c 



386 DRY-FARMING 

tant one in the near future. This is one of the great 
dry-farm districts of the world. 

The Great Basin 

The Great Basin inchides Nevada, the western 
half of Utah, a small part of southern Oregon and 
Idaho, and also a part of Southern California. It is 
a great interior basin with all its rivers draining into 
salt lakes or dry sinks. In recent geological times 
the Great Basin was filled with water, forming the 
great Lake Bonneville which drained into the 
Columbia River. In fact, the Great Basin is made 
up of a series of great valleys, with very level floors, 
representing the old lake bottom. On the bench 
lands are seen, in many places, the effects of the wave 
action of the ancient lake. The chief dry-farm crop 
of this district is wheat, but the other grains, includ- 
ing corn, are also produced successfully. Other 
crops have been tried with fair success, but not on a 
commercial scale. Grapevines have been made to 
grow quite successfully without irrigation on the 
bench lands. Several small orchards bearing lus- 
cious fruit are growing on the deep soils of the Great 
Basin without the artificial application of water. 
Though the first dry-farming by modern peoples 
was probably practiced in the Great Basin, yet the 
area at present under cultivation is not large, pos- 
sibly a little more than four hundred thousand acres. 



THE STATUS IN THE GREAT BASIN 



387 



Dry-farmings however, is well established. There 
are large areas, especially in Nevada, that receive 
less than ten inches of rainfall annually, and one 
of the leading problems before the dry-farmers of 
this district is the determination of the possibility 




iiijiiiiiiiiiiiMii I 





Fig. 103. Dry-farm Kubanka wheat, and nature of country near Reno, 

Nevada. 



of producing crops u}3on such lands without irriga- 
tion. On the older dry-farms, which have existed 
in some cases from forty to fifty years, there are no 
signs of diminution of soil-fertility. Undoubtedly, 
however, even under the conditions of extremely 
high fertility prevailing in the Great Basin, the time 
will soon come when the dry-farmer must make 
provision for restoring to the soil some of the fertility 



388 DRY-FARMING 

taken away by crops. There are millions of acres 
in the Great Basin yet to be taken up and subjected 
to the will of the dry-farmer. 

Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins 

The Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins include 
Arizona and the western part of New Mexico. The 
chief dry-farm crops of this dry district are wheat, 
corn, and beans. Other crops have also been grown 
in small quantities and with some success. The area 
suitable for dry-farming in this district has not yet 
been fully determined and, therefore, the Arizona and 
New Mexico stations are undertaking dry-farm sur- 
veys of their respective states. In spite of the fact 
that Arizona is generally looked upon as one of the 
driest states of the Union, dry-farming is making 
considerable headway there. In New Mexico, five 
sixths of all the homestead applications during the 
last year were for dry-farm lands ; and, in fact, there 
are several prosperous communities in New Mexico 
which are subsisting almost wholly on dry-farming. 
It is only fair to say, however, that dry-farming is 
not yet well established in this district, but that the 
prospects are that the application of scientific prin- 
ciples will soon make it possible to produce profitable 
crops without irrigation in large parts of the Colorado 
and Rio Grande River Basins. 



THE PRESENT STATUS OF DRY-FARMING 389 

The mountaiyi states 

This district includes a part of Montana, nearly the 
whole of Wyoming and Colorado, and part of eastern 
Idaho. It is located along the backbone of the Rocky 
Mountains. The farms are located chiefly in valleys 
and on large rolling table-lands. The chief dry-farm 
crop is wheat, though the other crops which are grown 
elsewhere on dry- farms may be grown here also. In 
Montana there is a very large area of land which has 
been demonstrated to be well adapted for dry-farm 
purposes. In Wyoming, especially on the eastern 
as well as on the far western side, dry-farming has 
been shown to be successful, but the area covered at 
the present time is comparatively small. In Idaho, 
dry-farming is fairly well established. In Colorado, 
likewise, the practice is very well established and the 
area is tolerably large. All in all, throughout the 
mountain states dry-farming may be said to be well 
established, though there is a great opportunity for 
the extension of the practice. The sparse population 
of the western states naturally makes it impossible 
for more than a small fraction of the land to be prop- 
erly cultivated. 

The Great Plains Area 

This area includes parts of Montana, North Dakota, 
South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, Colo- 



390 



DRY-FARMING 



rado, New Mexico^ Oklahoma, and Texas. It is the 
largest area of dry-farm land under approximately 
uniform conditions. Its drainage is into the Missis- 
sippi, and it covers an area of not less than four hun- 




FiG. 104. View of the 30,000-acre dry-farm district in Cache Valley, 
Utah. The part at the left of the fence is unreclaimed. 

dred thousand square miles. Dry-farm crops grow 
well over the whole area ; in fact, dry-farming is well 
established in this district. In spite of the failures 



THE PRESENT STATUS OF DRY-FARMING 391 

SO widely advertised during the dry season of 1894, 
the farmers who remained on their farms and since 
that time have employed modern methods have se- 
cured wealth from their labors. The important ques- 
tion before the farmers of this district is that of 
methods for securing the best results. From the 
Dakotas to Texas the farmers bear the testimony 
that wherever the soil has been treated right, accord- 
ing to approved methods, there have been no crop 
failures. 

Canada 

Dry-farming has been pushed vigorously in the 
semiarid portions of Canada, and with great success. 
Dry-farming is now reclaiming large areas of formerly 
worthless land, especially in Alberta, Saskatchewan, 
and the adjoining provinces. Dry-farming is com- 
paratively recent in Canada, yet here and there are 
semiarid localities where crops have been raised 
without irrigation for upwards of a quarter of a cen- 
tury. In Alberta and other places it has been now 
practiced successfully for eight or ten years, and it 
may be said that dry-farming is a well-established 
practice in the semiarid regions of the Dominion of 
Canada. 

Mexico 

In Mexico, likewise, dry-farming has been tried and 
found to be successful. The natives of Mexico have 



392 DRY-FARMING 

practiced farming without irrigation for centuries; 
and modern methods are now being appHed in the 
zone midway between the extremely dry and the 
extremely humid portions. The irregular distribu- 
tion of the precipitation, the late spring and early fall 
frosts, and the fierce winds combine to make the dry- 
farm problem somewhat difficult, yet the prospects 
are that, with government assistance, dry-farming 
in the near future will become an established practice 
in Mexico. In the opinion of the best students of 
Mexico it is the only method of agriculture that can 
be made to reclaim a very large portion of the country. 

Brazil 

Brazil, which is greater in area than the United 
States, also has a large arid and semiarid territory 
which can be reclaimed only by dry-farm methods. 
Through the activity of leading citizens experiments 
in behalf of the dry-farm movement have already 
been ordered. The dry-farm district of Brazil re- 
ceives an annual precipitation of about twenty-five 
inches, but irregularly distributed and under a tropi- 
cal sun. In the opinion of those who are familiar with 
the conditions, the methods of dry-farming may be so 
adapted as to make dry-farming successful in Brazil. 



THE FOREIGN STATUS OF DRY-FARMING 393 

Australia 

Australia, larger than the continental United 
States, is vitally interested in dry-farming, for one 
third of its vast area is under a rainfall of less than 
ten inches, and another third is under a rainfall of 
between ten and twenty inches. Two thirds of the 
area of Australia, if reclaimed at all, must be re- 
claimed by dry-farming. The realization of this 
condition has led several Australians to visit the 
United States for the purpose of learning the methods 
employed in dry-farming. The reports on dry- 
farming in America by Surveyor-General Straw- 
bridge and Senator J. H. McColl have done much to 
initiate a vigorous propaganda in behalf of dry- 
farming in Australia. Investigation has shown that 
occasional farmers are found in Australia, as in 
America, who have discovered for themselves many 
of the methods of dry-farming and have succeeded in 
producing crops profitably. Undoubtedly, in time, 
Australia will be one of the great dry-farming coun- 
tries of the world. 

Africa 

Up to the present. South Africa only has taken an 
active interest in the dry-farm movement, due to the 
enthusiastic labors of Dr. William Macdonald of the 
Transvaal. The Transvaal has an average annual 
precipitation of twenty-three inches, with a large 



394 DRY-FARMING 

district that receives between thirteen and twenty 
inches. The rain comes in the summer^ making the 
conditions similar to those of the Great Plains. The 
success of dry-farming has already been practically 
demonstrated. The question before the Transvaal 
farmers is the determination of the best application 
of water conserving methods under the prevailing 
conditions. Under proper leadership the Transvaal 
and other portions of Africa will probably join the 
ranks of the larger dry-farming countries of the world. 

Russia 

More than one fourth of the whole of Russia is so 
dry as to be reclaimable only by dry-farming. The 
arid area of southern European Russia has a climate 
very much like that of the Great Plains. Turkestan 
and middle Asiatic Russia have a climate more like 
that of the Great Basin. In a great number of lo- 
calities in both European and Asiatic Russia dry- 
farming has been practiced for a number of years. 
The methods employed have not been of the most 
refined kind, due, possibly, to the condition of the 
people constituting the farming class. The govern- 
ment is now becoming interested in the matter and 
there is no doubt that dry -farming will also be prac- 
ticed on a very large scale in Russia. 




73 

-a 
•i 



o 

"a 
IS 



396 



DRY-FARMING 



Turkey 

Turkey has also a large area of arid land and, due to 
American assistance, experiments in dry-farming are 
being carried on in various parts of the country. It 
is interesting to learn that the experiments there, up 




Fig. 106. Dry-farm olive orchards near Sfax, Tunis, Northern Africa. 



THE STATUS OF DRY-FARMING ABROAD 397 

to date, have been eminently successful and that the 
prospects now are that modern dry-farming will soon 
be conducted on a large scale in the Ottoman Empire. 

Palestine 

The whole of Palestine is essentially arid and semi- 
arid and dry-farming there has been practiced for cen- 
turies. With the application of modern methods it 
should be more successful than ever before. Dr. 
Aaronsohn states that the original wild wheat from 
which the present varieties of wheat have descended 
has been discovered to be a native of Palestine. 

China 

China is also interested in dry-farming. The cli- 
mate of the drier portions of China is much like that 
of the Dakotas. Dry-farming there is of high antiq- 
uity, though, of course, the methods are not those 
that have been developed in recent years. Under 
the influence of the more modern methods drv-farm- 
ing should spread extensively throughout China and 
become a great source of profit to the empire. The 
results of dry-farming in China are among the best. 

These countries have been mentioned simply be- 
cause they have been represented at the recent Dry- 
farming Congresses. Nearly all of the great coun- 
tries of the world having extensive semiarid areas are 



398 DRY-FARMING 

directly interested in dry-farming. The map on pages 
30 and 31 shows that more than 55 per cent of the 
world's surface receives an annual rainfall of less 
than twenty inches. Dry-farming is a world prob- 
lem and as such is being received by the nations. 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE YEAR OF DROUTH 



The Shadow of tho^ Year of Drouth still obscures 
the hope of many a dry-fanner. From the magazine 
page and the public platform the prophet of evil, 
thinking himself a friend of humanity, solemnly warns 
against the arid region and dry-farming, for the year 
of drouth, he says, is sure to come again and then will 
be repeated the disasters of 1893-1895. Beware of 
the year of drouth. Even successful dry-farmers who 
have obtained good crops every year for a generation 
or more are half led to expect a dry year — one so 
dry that crops will fail in spite of all human effort. 
The question is continually asked, ''Can crop yields 
reasonably be expected every year, through a suc- 
cession of dry years, under semiarid conditions, if 
the best methods of dry-farming be practiced?" In 
answering this question, it may be said at the very 
beginning, that when the year of drouth is mentioned 
in connection with dry-farming, sad reference is al- 
ways made to the experience on the Great Plains in 
the early years of the '90's. Now the fact of the 
matter is, that while the years of 1893, 1894, and 1895 
were dry years, the only complete failure came in 
1894. In spite of the improper methods practiced by 

399 



400 DRY-FARMING 

the settlers, the wilhng soil failed to yield a crop only 
one year. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that 
hundreds of farmers in the driest section during this 
dry period, who instinctively or otherwise farmed 
more nearly right, obtained good crops even in 1894. 
The simple practice of summer fallowing, had it been 
practiced the year before, would have insured satis- 
factory crops in the driest year. Further, the set- 
tlers who did not take to their heels upon the arrival 
of the dry year are still living in large numbers on 
their homesteads and in numerous instances have 
accumulated comfortable fortunes from the land 
which has been held up so long as a warning against 
settlement beyond a humid climate. The failure of 
1894 was due as much to a lack of proper agricultural 
information and practice as to the occurrence of a 
dry year. 

Next, the statement is carelessly made that the 
recent success in dry-farming is due to the fact that 
we are now living in a cycle of wet years, but that as 
soon as the cycle of dry years strikes the country dry- 
farming will vanish as a dismal failure. Then, again, 
the theory is proposed that the climate is permanently 
changing toward wetness or dryness and the past has 
no meaning in reading the riddle of the future. It is 
doubtless true that no man may safely predict the 
weather for future generations ; yet, so far as human 
knowledge goes, there is no perceptible average 
change in the climate from period to period within 



402 DRY-FARMING 

historical time; neither are there protracted dry 
periods followed by protracted wet periods. The 
fact iSj dry and wet years alternate. A succession of 
somewhat wet years may alternate with a succession 
of somewhat dry years, but the average precipitation 
from decade to decade is very nearly the same. 
True, there will always be a dry year, that is, the 
driest year of a series of years, and this is the sup- 
posedly fearful and fateful year of drouth. The busi- 
ness of the dry-farmer is always to farm so as to be 
prepared for this driest year whenever it comes. If 
this be done, the farmer will always have a crop : in 
the wet years his crop will be large ; in the driest year 
it will be sufficient to sustain him. 

So persistent is the half-expressed fear that this 
driest year makes it impossible to rely upon dry- 
farming as a permanent system of agriculture that a 
search has been made for reliable long records of the 
production of crops in arid and semiarid regions. 
Public statements have been made by many perfectly 
reliable men to the effect that crops have been pro- 
duced in diverse sections over long periods of years, 
some as long as thirty-five or forty years, without one 
failure having occurred. Most of these statements, 
however, have been general in their nature and not 
accompanied by the exact yields from year to year. 
Only three satisfactory^ records have been found in a 
somewhat careful search. Others no doubt exist. 



A DROUTH-RESISTING FARM 



403 



The Barnes farm 

The first record was made by Senator J. G. M. 
Barnes of Kaysville, Utah. Kaysville is located in 
the Great Salt Lake Valley, about fifteen miles north 









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Fig. 108. Field of dry-farm wheat. Utah 1909. 

of Salt Lake City. The climate is semiarid ; the pre- 
cipitation comes mainly in the winter and early spring ; 



404 DRY-FARMING 

the summers are dry, and the evaporation is large. 
Senator Barnes purchased ninety acres of land in the 
spring of 1887 and had it farmed under his own su- 
pervision until 1906. He is engaged in commercial 
enterprises and did not, himself, do any of the work 
on the farm, but employed men to do the neces- 
sary labor. However, he kept a close supervision 
of the farm and decided upon the practices which 
should be followed. From seventy-eight to eighty- 
nine acres were harvested for each crop, with the 
exception of 1902, when all but about twenty acres 
was fired by sparks from the passing railroad train. 
The plowing, harrowing, and weeding were done very 
carefully. Tlie complete record of the Barnes dry- 
farm from 1887 to 1905 is shown in the table on 
the following page. 

The first plowing was given the farm in May of 
1887, and, with the exception of 1902, the land was 
invariably plowed in the spring. With fall plowing 
the yields would undoubtedly have been better. 
The first sowing was made in the fall of 1887, and fall 
grain was grown during the whole period of observa- 
tion. The seed sown in the fall of 1887 came up well, 
but was winter-killed. This is ascribed by Senator 
Barnes to the very dry winter, though it is probable 
that the soil was not sufficiently well stored with 
moisture to carry the crop through. The farm was 
plowed again in the spring of 1888, and another crop 
sown in September of the same year. In the summer 



THE YEAR OF DROUTH 



405 



Record of the Barnes Dry-farm, Salt Lake Valley, 

Utah (90 acres) 



Year 


Annual 

Rainfall 

(Inches) 


Yield 

PER Acre 

(Bu.) 


When 
Plowed 


When Sown 


1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 


11.66 
13.62 
18.46 
10.33 


Failure 
22.5 
15.5 


May 
May 


Sept. 
Sept. 
Volunteer 1 


1891 
1892 


15.92 
14.08 


Fallow 
19.3 


May 


Fall 


1893 
1894 


17.35 
15.27 


Fallow 
26.0 


May 


Fall 


1895 

1896 


11.95 
18.42 


Fallow 
22.0 


May 


Aug. 


1897 
1898 


16.74 
16.09 


Fallow 
26.0 


Spring- 


Fall 


1899 
1900 


17.57 
11.53 


Fallow 
23.5 


May 


Fall 


1901 
1902 
1903 


16.08 
11.41 
14.62 


Fallow 
28.9 
12.5 


Spring 
Sept. 


Fall 
Fall 


1904 
1905 


16.31 
14.23 


Fallow 

25.8 


Spring 


Fall 



of 1889, 22 J bushels of wheat were harvested to the 
acre. Encouraged by this good crop i\Ir. Barnes al- 
lowed a volunteer crop to grow that fall and the next 
summer harvested as a result 15§ bushels of wheat 
to the acre. The table shows that only one crop 
smaller than this was harvested during the whole 

1 About four acres were sown on stubble. 



406 DRY-FARMING 

period of nineteen years, namely, in 1903, when the 
same thing was done, and one crop was made to follow 
another without an intervening fallow period. This 
observation is an evidence in favor of clean summer 
fallowing. The largest crop obtained, 28.9 bushels 
per acre in 1902, was gathered in a year when the next 
to the lowest rainfall of the whole period occurred, 
namely, 11.41 inches. 

The precipitation varied during the nineteen years 
from 10.33 inches to 18.46 inches. The variation in 
yield per acre was considerably less than this, not 
counting the two crops that were grown immediately 
after another crop. All in all, the unique record of the 
Barnes dry-farm shows that through a period of nine- 
teen years, including dry and comparatively wet 
years, there was absolutely no sign of failure, except 
in the first year, when probably the soil had not been 
put in proper condition to support crops. In pass- 
ing it maybe mentioned that, according to the records 
furnished by Senator Barnes, the total cost of operat- 
ing the farm during the nineteen years was $4887.69 ; 
the total income was $10,144.83. The difference, 
$5257.14, is a very fair profit on the investment of 
$1800 — the original cost of the farm. 

The Indian Head farm 

An equally instructive record is furnished by the 
experimental farm located at Indian Head in Sas- 
katchewan, Canada, in the northern part of the Great 



A DROUTH-RESISTING FARM 



407 




Fig. 109. Carting macaroni wheat to the wharves in southern Russia. 

Plains area. According to Alway, the country is in 
appearance very much Hke western Nebraska and 
Kansas; the cHmate is distinctly arid, and the pre- 
cipitation comes mainly in the spring and summer. 
It is the only experimental dry-farm in the Great 
Plains area with records that go back before the dry 
years of the early '90's. In 1882 the soil of this farm 
was broken, and it was farmed continuously until 1888, 



408 



DRY-FARMING 



when it was made an experimental farm under gov- 
ernment supervision. The following table shows the 
yields obtained from the year 1891, when the pre- 
cipitation records were first kept^ to 1909 : — 

Record of Indian Head Experimental Farm and 
Motherwell's Farm, Saskatchewan, Canada 



Year 


Annual 
Rainfall 
(Inches) 1 


Bushels of Wheat 

PER Acre 
Experimental Farm 


Bushels of Wheat 

PER Acre 

Motherwell's 




Fallow 


stubble 


Farm 


1891 


14.03 


35 


32 


30 


1892 


6.92 


28 


21 


28 


1893 


10.11 


35 


22 


34 


1894 


3.90 


17 


9 


24 


1895 


12.28 


41 


22 


26 


1896 


10.59 


39 


29 


31 


1897 


14.62 


33 


26 


35 


1898 


18.03 


32 


— 


27 


1899 


9.44 


33 




33 


1900 


11.74 


17 


5 


25 


1901 


20.22 


49 


38 


51 


1902 


10.73 


38 


22 


28 


1903 


15.55 


35 


15 


31 


1904 


11.96 


40 


29 


35 


1905 


19.17 


42 


18 


36 


1906 


13.21 


26 


13 


38 


1907 


15.03 


18 


18 


15 


1908 


13.17 


29 


14 


16 


1909 


13.96 


28 


15 


23 



Average — 



32.4 



20.5 



^ Snowfall not included, 
inches of water. 



This has varied from 2.3 to 1.3 



THE FARM AT INDIAN HEAD 



409 



The annual rainfall shown in the second column 
does not include the water which fell in the form of 
snow. According to the records at hand, the annual 
snow fall varied from 2.3 to 1.3 inches of water, which 
should be added to the rainfall given in the table. 




Fig. 110. \ itw ul I'aluuse wheat district, showing rolling luituic of 

country. 

Even with this addition the rainfall shows the dis- 
trict to be of a distinctly semiarid character. It will 
be observed that the precipitation varied from 3.9 
to 20.22 inches, and that during the early '90's several 
rather dry years occurred. In spite of this large 
variation good crops have been obtained during the 
whole period of nineteen years. Not one failure is 
recorded. The lowest yield of 17 bushels per acre 



410 DRY-FARMING 

came during the very dry year of 1894 and during the 
somewhat dry year of 1900. Some of the largest 
yields were obtained in seasons when the rainfall was 
only near the average. As a record showing that the 
year of drouth need not be feared when dry-farming 
is done right, this table is of v ry high interest. It 
may be noted, incidentally, that throughout the whole 
period wheat following a fallow always yielded 
higher than wheat following the stubble. For the 
nineteen years, the difference was as 32.4 bushels is 
to 20.5 bushels. 

The Motherwell farm 

In the last column of the table are shown the annual 
yields of wheat obtained on the farm of Commissioner 
Motherwell of the province of Saskatchewan. This 
private farm is located some twenty-five miles away 
from Indian Head, and the rainfall records of the ex- 
perimental farm are, therefore, only approximately 
accurate for the Motherwell farm. The results on this 
farm may well be compared to the Barnes results of 
Utah, since they were obtained on a private farm. 
During the period of nineteen years good crops were 
invariably obtained; even during the very dry year 
of 1894, a yield of twenty-four bushels of wheat to the 
acre was obtained. Curiously enough, the lowest 
yields of fifteen and sixteen bushels to the acre were 
obtained in 1907 and 1908 when the precipitation was 



DROUTH -RESISTING FARMS 411 

fairly good, and must be ascribed to some other factor 
than that, of precipitation. The record of this farm 
shows conclusively that with proper farming there is 
no need to fear the year of drouth. 

The Utah drouth of 1910 

During the year of 1910 only 2.7 inches of rain fell 
in Salt Lake City from March 1 to the July harvest, 
and all of this in March, as against 7.18 inches dur- 
ing the same period the preceding year. In other 
parts of the state much less rain fell ; in fact, in the 
southern part of the state the last rain fell during 
the last week of December, 1909. The drouth re- 
mained unbroken until long after the wheat har- 
vests. Great fear was expressed that the dry-farms 
could not survive so protracted a period of drouth. 
Agents, sent out over the various dry-farm districts, 
reported late in June that wherever clean summer 
fallowing had been practiced the crops were in excel- 
lent condition; but that wherever careless methods 
had been practiced, the crops were poor or killed. 
The reports of the harvest in July of 1910 showed 
that fully 85 per cent of an average crop was obtained 
in spite of the protracted drouth wherever the soil 
came into the spring well stored with moisture, and 
in many instances full crops were obtained. 

Over the whole of the dry-farm territory of the 
United States similar conditions of drouth occurred. 



412 DRY-FARMING 

After the harvest, however, every state reported 
that the crops were well up to the average wherever 
correct methods of culture had been employed. 

These well-authenticated records from true semi- 
arid districts, covering the two chief types of winter 
and summer precipitation, prove that the year of 
drouth, or the driest year in a twenty-year period, 
does not disturb agricultural conditions seriously in 
localities where the average annual precipitation is 
not too low, and where proper cultural methods are 
followed. That dry-farming is a system of agricul- 
tural practice which requires the application of high 
skill and intelligence is admitted ; that it is precarious 
is denied. The year of drouth is ordinarily the year 
in which the man failed to do properly his share of the 
work. 



CHAPTER XX 

DRY-FARMING IN A NUTSHELL 

Locate the dry-farm in a section with an annual 
precipitation of more than ten inches and, if possible, 
with small wind movement. One man with four 
horses and plenty of machinery cannot handle more 
than from 160 to 200 acres. Farm fewer acres and 
farm them better. 

Select a clay loam soil. Other soils may be equally 
productive, but are cultivated properly with some- 
what more difficulty. 

Make sure, with the help of the soil auger, that 
the soil is of uniform structure to a depth of at least 
eight feet. If streaks of loose gravel or layers of 
hardpan are near the surface, water may be lost to 
the plant roots. 

After the land has been cleared and broken let it 
lie fallow with clean cultivation, for one year. The 
increase in the first and later crops will pay for the 
waiting. 

Always plow the land early in the fall, unless abun- 
dant experience shows that fall plowing is an unwise 
practice in the locality. Always plow deeply unless 
the subsoil is infertile, in which case plow a little 

413 



414 DRY-FARMING 

deeper each year until eight or ten inches are reached. 
Plow at least once for each crop. Spring plowing, 
if practiced, should be done as early as possible in 
the season. 

Follow the plow, whether in the fall or spring, with 
the disk and that with the smoothing harrow, if crops 
are to be sown soon afterward. If the land plowed 
in the fall is to lie fallow for the winter, leave it in the 
rough condition, except in localities where there is 
little or no snow and the winter temperature is high. 

Always disk the land in early spring, to prevent 
evaporation. Follow the disk with the harrow. 
Harrow, or in some other way stir the surface of the 
soil after every rain. If crops are on the land, har- 
row as long as the plants will stand it. If hoed crops, 
like corn or potatoes, are grown, use the cultivator 
throughout the season. A deep mulch or dry soil 
should cover the land as far as possible throughout 
the summer. Immediately after harvest disk the 
soil thoroughly. 

Destroy weeds as soon as they show themselves. 
A weedy dry-farm is doomed to failure. 

Give the land an occasional rest, that is, a clean 
summer fallow. Under a rainfall of less than fifteen 
inches, the land should be summer fallowed every 
other year; under an annual rainfall of fifteen to 
twenty inches, the summer fallow should occur every 
third or fourth year. Where the rainfall comes 
chiefly in the summer, the summer fallow is less im- 



DRY-FARMING IN A NUTSHELL 



415 



portant in ordinary years than where the summers 
are dry and the winters wet. Only an absohitely 
clean fallow should be permitted. 

The fertility of dry-farm soils must be maintained. 
Return the manure; plow under green leguminous 




Fig. 111. Homeward bound. Sagebrush in foreground; drj'-farms in the 

distance. 

crops occasionally and practice rotation. On fertile 
soils plants mature with the least water. 

Sow only by the drill method. * Wherever possible 
use fall varieties of crops. Plant deeply — three or 
four inches for grain. Plant early in the fall, espe- 
cially if the land has been summer fallowed. Use only 
about one half as much seed as is recommended for 
humid-farming. 

All the ordinary crops may be grown by dry-farm- 
ing. Secure seed that has been raised on dry-farms. 
Look out for new varieties, especially adapted for 
dry-farming, that may be brought in. Wheat is 
king in dry-farming; corn a close second. Turkey 
wheat promises the best. 



416 DRY-FARMING 

Stock the dry-farm with the best modern machin- 
ery. Dry- farming is possible onl}' because of the 
modern plow, the disk, the drill seeder^ the harvester, 
the header, and the thresher. 

^hike a home on the dry-farm. Store the flood 
waters in a reservoir, or pump the underground 
waters, for irrigating the family garden. Set out 
trees, plant flowers, and keep some live stock. 

Learn to understand the reasons back of the prin- 
ciples of dry-farming, apply the knowledge vigor- 
ously, and the crop cannot fail. 

Always farm as if a A^ear of drouth were coming. 

Man, by his intelligence, compels the laws of nature 
to do his bidding, and thus he achieves joy. 

^Mnd God blessed them — and God said unto 
them. Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the 
earth, and subdue it.^^ 



APPENDIX A 

A PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE LIT- 
ERATURE OF DRY-FARMING 

1897 

Some Interesting Soil Problems. Milton AMiitney. 
Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture for 
1897, page 429. 

1900 

The Plains. J. E. Payne. Bulletin 59, Colorado 
Experiment Station. 

Successful WTieat Growing in Semiarid Districts. 
M. A. Carleton. Yearbook, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture for 1900, page 529. 

1901 

Macaroni \Mieats. M. A. Carleton. Bulletin 
No. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

Emmer : A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. 
M. A. Carleton. Farmers' Bulletin 139, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

1902 

Arid-farming or Dry-farming. J. A. Widtsoe 
and L. A. Merrill. Bulletin 75, Utah Experiment 
Station. 

2e 417 



418 APPENDIX A 

The Algerian Durum Wheats : A Classified List, 
with Descriptions. C. S. Scofield. Bulletin No. 7, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

1903 

Investigation of the Great Plains and Unirrigated 
Lands of Eastern Colorado : Seven Years Study. 
J. E. Payne. Bulletin 77, Colorado Experiment 
Station. 

The Description of Wheat Varieties. C. S. Scofield. 
Bulletin No. 47, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 

1905 

Macaroni Wheats. T. L. Lyon. Bulletin No. 78, 
Nebraska Experiment Station. 

Report of the Edgley Substation. North Dakota 
Experiment Station. 

The Thorough Tillage System for the Plains of 
Colorado. W. H. Olin. Bulletin 103, Colorado 
Experiment Station. 

Agriculture without Irrigation in the Sahara 
Desert. T. H. Kearney. Bulletin No. 86, Bureau 
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Macaroni Wheat : Its Milling and Chemical 
Characteristics and Its Adaptation for Making 
Bread and Macaroni. J. H. Shepherd. Bulletin 
No. 92, South Dakota Experiment Station. 

The Relation of Irrigation to Dry-farming. El- 
wood Mead. Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture for 1905, page 423. 



^ APPENDIX A 419 

Arid-farming in Utah : First Report of the State 
Experimental Arid Farms. J. A. Widtsoe and L. A. 
Merrill. Bulletin No. 91, Utah Experiment Station. 

1906 

Agriculture and Irrigation. J. H. McColl, M. P. 
Bendigo, Australia. 

Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture with 
Special Reference to Semiarid Conditions. George 
H. Failyer. Farmers' Bulletin No. 266, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. C. R. Ball. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 246, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

Arid-farming Investigations. W. M. Jardine. 
Bulletin 100, Utah Experiment Station. 

Macaroni or Durum Wheats. J. H. Shepherd. 
Bulletin 99, South Dakota Experiment Station. 

1907 

Dry Land Farming in the Great Plains Area. 
E. C. Chilcott. Yearbook, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture for 1907, page 451. 

Dry-farming in the Great Basin. C. S. Scofield. 
Bulletin 103, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Dry-farming in New Mexico. J. J. Vernon. 
Bulletin No. 61, New Mexico Experiment Station. 

The Culture and Uses of Brome Grass. R. A. 
Oakley. Bulletin 111, Part V, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



420 APPENDIX A 

Farm Practice in the Columbia Basin Uplands. 
Byron Hunter. Farmers' Bulletin 295, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Dry-farming in Montana. F. B. Linfield and 
Alfred Atkinson. Bulletin No. 63, Montana Experi- 
ment Station. 

First Annual Report of the Superintendent of 
Demonstration Farms for North Dakota. North 
Dakota Experiment Station. 

Campbell's 1907 Soil Culture Manual. H. W. 
Campbell, Lincoln, Nebraska. 

Proceedings of the First Dry-farming Congress, 
Denver, Colorado. 

Evaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water 
Requirements of Crops. S. Fortier. Bulletin 177, 
Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

Cement Pipe for Small Irrigating Systems. G. E. 
P. Smith. Bulletin 55, Arizona Experiment Station. 

1908 

Dry-farming in Idaho. Elias Nelson. Bulletin 
No. 62, Idaho Experiment Station. 

How to Make Dry-farming Pay : Being the Re- 
sults of Forty Years of Successful Arid Land Culti- 
vation in Utah. George L. Farrell, Logan, Utah. 

Milling Qualities of Wheat. R. Stewart and J. E. 
Greaves. Bulletin 103, Utah Experiment Station. 

Milo as a Dry Land Grain Crop. C. R. Ball and 
A. H. Leidigh. Farmers' Bulletin 322, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



APPENDIX A 421 

Dry Land Grains. W. M. Jardine. Circular 
No. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

Dry-farm Investigations in Montana. A. Atkin- 
son and J. B. Nelson. Bulletin 74, Montana Experi- 
ment Station. 

The Storage of Winter Precipitation in Soils. 
J. A. Widtsoe, Bulletin No. 104, Utah Experiment 
Station. 

Dry Land Farming and Kindred Topics. F. S. 
Cooley. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1, Montana Agri- 
cultural College. 

Notes on Dry-farming. W. M. Jardine. Cir- 
cular No. 10, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Second Annual Report of the Superintendent of 
Demonstration Farms for North Dakota. North 
Dakota Experiment Station. 

The Plains : Some Press Bulletins. Bulletin 123, 
Colorado Experiment Station. 

Dry Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 
T. H. Kearney. Bulletin 1^5, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Report of the Second Dry-farming Congress, Salt 
La)^e City, Utah. 

Dry Land Agriculture : Papers Read at the Second 
Annual Meetin| of the Cooperative Experiment 
Association of the Great Plains Area. Bulletin 130, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

Report on Dry-farming in America. W. Straw- 
bridge, I. S. O., Adelaide, South Australia. 



422 APPENDIX A 

1909 

The Influence of Depth of Cultivation Upon Soil 
Bacteria and Their Activities. W. E. King and 
C. J. T. Doryland. Bulletin 161, Kansas Experiment 
Station. 

Tests of Pumping Plants in New Mexico. B. P. 
Fleming and J. B. Stoneking. Bulletin 73, New 
Mexico Experiment Station. 

On the Relation of Active Legumes to the Soil 
Nitrogen of Nebraska Prairies. F. J. Alway and 
R. M. Pickney. The Journal of Industrial and 
Engineering Chemistry, November, 1909, page 771. 

Tillage and Its Relation to Soil Moisture. C. C. 
Thom. Popular Bulletin No. 22, Washington 
Experiment Station. 

Methods of Tillage for Dry-farming. G. Sever- 
ance. Popular Bulletin No. 15, Washington Experi- 
ment Station. 

Dry-farming in Wyoming. V. T. Cooke. State 
Dry-farming Commission, Cheyenne, Wyoming. 

Dry-farming in Wyoming. J. D. Towar. Bulle- 
tin No. 80, Wyoming Experiment Station. 

Report of the Third Dry-farming Congress, Chey- 
enne, Wyoming. 

Alfalfa in Cultivated Rows for Seed Production "in 
Semiarid Regions. C. J. Brand and J. M. West- 
gate, Circular No. 24, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Factors Influencing Evaporation and Transpira- 
tion. J. A. Widtsoe. Bulletin 105, Utah Experi- 
ment Station. 



APPENDIX A 423 

A Study of the Production and Movement of 
Nitric Nitrogen in an Irrigated Soil. R. Stewart 
and J. E. Greaves. Bulletin 106, Utah Experiment 
Station. 

Dry-farming : Report of the Proceedings at the 
Third Dry-farming Congress and further Investiga- 
tions in America. Senator J. H. McCoU. Gov- 
ernment Printing Office, Australia. 

Dry-farming : Its Principles and Practice. W. 
Macdonald. The Century Company. 

1910 

Dry Land Farming in Eastern Colorado. H. M. 
Cottrell. Bulletin 145, Colorado Experiment Sta- 
tion. 

Dry-farm Practice in Montana. A. Atkinson. 
Circular No. 3, Montana Experiment Station. 

The Fixation of Nitrogen in Some Colorado Soils. 
W. P. Headden. Bulletin 155, Colorado Experi- 
ment Station. 

Drouth Resistant Plants for the Arid Southwest. 
J. J. Thornber. Timely Hints for Farmers, No. 83, 
Arizona Experiment Station. 

The Use of Windmills in Irrigation in the Semi- 
nrid West. P. E. Fuller, Farmers' Bulletin 394, 
1*L 4 '-department of Agriculture. 

/I Contribution to our Knowledge of the Nitro- 
gen Problem under Dry-farming. F. J. Alway and 
R. S. Trumbell. Journal of Industrial and Engineer- 
ing Chemistry, April, 1910. 

Report of the Fourth Dry-farming Congress, Bill- 
ings, Montana. 




424 APPENDIX A 

Tri-Local Experiments on the Influence of Envi- 
ronment on the Composition of Wheat. J. A. LeClerc 
and S. Leavitt. Bulletin 128, Bureau of Chemistry. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Fruit Growing for Home Use in the Central and 
Southern Great Plains. H. P. Gould. Circular 
No. 51, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. S 

Traction Plowing. L. W. Ellis, Bulletin No. 170, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of n 
Agriculture. 

Seasonal Nitrification as Influenced by Crops and 
Tillage. C. A. Jensen. Bulletin No. 173, Bureau 
of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Cooperative Grain Investigations. Nephi Sub- 
station. Nephi, Utah. Report of the Years 1907 
and 1908 and 1909. F. D. Farrell. 

The Nitrogen and Carbon in the Virgin and 
lowed Soils of Eastern Oregon. C. E. Bradl^. 
The Journal of Industrial and ^Engineering Chemise- 
try, April, 1910, page 138. \ 

Storing Moisture in the Soil. W.N^. Burr. Bul- 
letin No. 114, Nebraska Experiment Sx^ion. 






LL FORHOME- 
RM LANDS 



That any person who is a qualified entryman under 
the homestead laws oi the United States may enter, 
by legal stilpdi visions, under the provisions of this 
act, in the st^es of Colorado, Montana, Nevada, 
Oregon, Utah, Wa^ington, and Wyoming, and the 
territories of New Mexico and Arizona, 320 acres, 
or less, of nonmineral, nonirrigable, unreserved, and 
unappropriated surveyed public lands which do not 
contain merchantable timber, located in a reasonably 
compact body, and not over one and one half miles 
in extreme length. Provided, that no lands shall be 
subject to entry under the provisions of this act until 
such lands shall have been designated by the secre- 
tary of the interior as not being in his opinion sus- 
ceptible of irrigation at a reasonable cost from any 
known source of water supply. 

Section 2 

That any person applying to enter land under the 
provisions of this act shall make and subscribe, 
before proper officials, an affidavit, as required by 
Section 2290 of the Revised Statutes, and in addition 

425 



426 APPENDIX B 

thereto shall make affidavit that the land sought 
to be entered is of the character described in Section 1 
of this act and shall pay the fees now required to be 
paid under the homestead laws. 

Section 3 

That any homestead entryman of lands of the 
character herein described, upon which final proof 
has not been made, shall have the right to enter pub- 
lic lands, subject to the provisions of this act, con- 
tiguous to his former entry which shall not exceed 
320 acres, and residence and cultivation of the orig- 
inal entry shall be deemed as residence upon and 
cultivation of the additional entry. 

Section 4 

That at the time of making final proof, as pro- 
vided in Section 2259 of the Revised Statutes, the 
entryman under this act shall, in addition to the 
proofs and affidavits required under the said section, 
prove by two creditable witnesses that at least one 
eighth of the area embraced in this entry was con- 
tinuously cultivated to agricultural crops other than 
prairie grasses, beginning with the second year of 
the entry, and at least one fourth of the area em- 
braced in the entry was so continuously cultivated 
beginning with the third year on the entry. 

Section 5 

That nothing herein contained shall be held to 
affect the right of a qualified entryman to make 



APPENDIX B 427 

homestead entry in the states named in Section 2259 
of the Revised Statutes, but no person who has 
made entry under this act shall be entitled to make 
homestead entry under the provisions of said section, 
and no entry under this act shall be commuted. 

Section 6 

That whenever the secretary of the interior shall 
find that any tracts of land, in the state of Utah, 
subject to entry under this act, do not have upon 
them such a sufficient supply of water suitable for 
domestic purposes as would make continuous resi- 
dence upon the land possible, he may, in his discre- 
tion, designate such tracts of land, not to exceed in 
the aggregate 2,000,000 acres, and thereafter they 
shall be subject to entry under this act without the 
necessity of residence. Provided, that in such 
event the entryman on any such entry shall cultivate 
in good faith not less than one eighth of the entire 
area of the entry during the second year, one fourth 
during the third year, and one half during fourth 
and fifth years after the date of such entry, and that 
after entry, and until final proof, the entryman shall 
reside within such distance of said land as will 
enable him successfully to farm the same as required 
by this section. 



INDEX 



Aaronsohn, 232, 253. 
Absorption, explained, 166-170 ; 
selective, 170 ; of water by seeds, 
210. 
Africa, present status of dry-farm- 
ing in, 393. 
Air, see also Soil-air; composi- 
tion, 172, 209; moisture in, 46, 
103, 133, 134. 
Alberta, deep and fall plowing in, 

195 ; fallowing in, 197. 
Alcohol, engines for pumping, 342. 
Alfalfa, see Lucern. 
Algeria, durum wheat in, 237. 
Alkali, furthers evaporation, 149 ; 
soils, 66 ; and native vegetation, 
80 ; effect on absorption, 168. 
Alumina, in soils, 70. 
Alway, 95; on Saskatchewan, 407. 
Alway and Trumbull, 285. 
American Indian, dry-farmers, 353. 
Aritiquity, great nations of antiquity 

in arid countries, 351. 
Apples, on dry-farm, 252. 
Area, dry-farm areas, 22, 27 ; dry- 
farm for one man, 301. 
Arid, defined, 24. 
" Arid-farming," 4. 
Arid region, defined by evapora- 
tion, 131. 
Aridity, civilization and, 351 ; 

determined by rainfall, 25. 
Arizona, area, 26; type of rainfall, 
39 ; soils, 76 ; evaporation in, 
132; pumping in, 344; eco- 
nomical use of water, 348 ; mes- 
quite tree, 251, 305; olive or- 
chards, 252; milo, 246; cacti, 
305 ; present status of dry-farm- 
ing, 388. 



Arizona Station, dry-farming, 369. 

Ash, in plants, 264, 281. 

Assimilation, of carbon, 171, 

Atkinson, 120, 190, 202. 

Atmosphere, see air. 

Auger, for judging soils, 78. 

Aughey, 90. 

Australia, dry-farm area, 33 ; fal- 
lowing in, 197; present status 
of dry-farming, 393. 

Azotobacter, in dry-farming, 291. 

Bacteria, and lime, 70 ; and soil- 
fertility, 290. 
Bailey, 74. 
Ball, 245. 

Barley, 241 ; pounds water for one 
pound, 14, 15; depth of roots, 
88 ; amount to sow, 224 ; water 
absorbed by seeds of, 209; 
repeated drying in germination, 
218 ; variations in composition, 
271. 

Barnes Farm, record of, 403. 

Basis, theoretical basis of dry-farm- 
ing, 11. 

Bean, field, 250 ; for nitrogen, 297 ; 
water absorbed by seeds of the, 
209. 

Bear River City, first large dry- 
farming trial at, 355. 

Bibliography, of dry-farming, 417- 
424. 

Black walnut, on dry-farms, 253. 

Blowing, of soils in Great Plains, 
198. 

Blue Stem wheat, 237, 240. 

Bogdanoff, 210. 

Bonneville, Lake, 75, 386. 

Boswell oats, 241. 



429 



430 



INDEX 



Bradley, 284. 

Brand, 248. 

Brazil, fallowing in, 197 ; present 
status of dry-farming, 392. 

Breaking, virgin land, 305. 

Breathing-pores, see Stomata. 

Breeding, of dry-farm crops, 233. 

British Cobimbia, present status 
of dry-farming, 385. 

Broadcasting, 225 ; no place in dry- 
farming, 317. 

Brooks, Governor, president Dry- 
Farming Congress, 376. 

Broom corn, 245. 

Buckingham, 139, 149. 

Buckwheat, pounds water for one 
pound, 14 ; in rotations, 299. 

Buergerstein, 180. 

Bulbs, on dry farms, 254. 

Burbank potatoes, 254. 

Burns, John T., secretary Dry- 
farming Congress, 378. 

Burr, 115, 122. 

Burt oats, 241. 

Cache valley, beginnings of dry- 
farming in, 356. 

Cactus, on dry-farm lands, 305. 

Calcium sulphate, in arid soils, 77. 

California, area, 26 ; type of rain- 
fall, 39 ; soils, 75, 77 ; soil-fer- 
tility question, 383 ; evapora- 
tion, 132 ; climate and plant 
composition, 272 ; evaporation re- 
duced by cultivation, 155 ; depth 
of roots, 91 ; fall planting, 215 ; 
fallowing, 196 ; pumping plants, 
341 ; cost of pumping, 344 ; 
wheats, 240; field peas, 249; 
water in crops from, 264 ; be- 
ginnings of dry-farming, 193, 
357, 359 ; present status of dry- 
farming, 383, 386. 

Campbell, H. W., work for dry- 
farming, 361 ; method summa- 
rized, 363 ; " " a voice in the 
wilderness," 365; adoption of 



fallowing, 194 ; cultivation be- 
tween rows, 163 ; subsurface 
packer, 316. 

Canada, see also Alberta, Saskatch- 
ewan; and Crimean wheat, 
238 ; continuous record of In- 
dian Head farm, 406 ; record of 
Motherwell farm, 410 ; present 
status of dry -farming, 391. 

Canal, irrigation canal, source of 
water, 333. 

Capillary soil-water, see also *So?7- 
water ; soil-water, 106; thickness 
of film, 108; alone of use to plants, 
143 ; evaporation of, 137. 

Carbon, amount in plants, 171 ; 
assimilation of, 171. 

Carbon dioxid, in soil formation, 
54 ; absorption by leaves, 172. 

Carleton, 237, 261, 270, 271. 

Carob tree, on dry-farms, 252 ; 
yields, 253. 

Cascades, description, 36. 

Catalpa, on dry-farms, 253. 

Catholic fathers, and early dry- 
farming, 353. 

Cedar, 80, 253, 305 ; in Great Basin, 
251. 

Cereals, see Wheat, Oafs, Barley, 
Rye, Grain. 

Chemical agencies in soil forma- 
tion, 54. 

Cherries, on dry-farm, 252. 

Cherson Station, 370. 

Cheyenne Wells, Colo., substation, 
366. 

Chihuahua, dry-farming in, by 
Indians, 353. 

Chilcott, 200, 298; appointed dry- 
farm expert, 373. 

Chile, durum wheat in, 237. 

China, dry-farming in, 353 ; fall 
plowing, 195 ; present status of 
dry-farming in, 397. 

Chinese date, on dry-farms, 252. 

Cistern, for water, 336. 

Civilization, and arid soils, 73, 351. 



INDEX 



431 



Clay, from combined silica ; in 
soils, 56 ; and climate, 57 ; and 
hardpan, 64 ; and native vege- 
tation, 80 ; soils defined, 57 ; in 
soil classification, 57 ; depth of 
planting in, 221 ; soils respond 
to cultivation, 157. 

Clearing, machinery for clearing 
land, 302. 

Climate, climate features of dry-farm 
area, 35 ; summary of climate in 
dry-farm territory, 48 ; does not 
change, 400 ; and proportion of 
plant parts, 261. 

Clover, pounds water for one pound, 
15 ; taproot of, 83 ; for nitrogen, 
297. 

Coal, for steam pumps, 342. 

Colorado, area, 26 ; type of rainfall 
over, 40 ; soils of, 74, 76 ; nitrogen 
in Colorado soils, 286 ; deep and 
fall plowing in, 195 ; fallowing 
in, 197 ; field peas in, 249 ; milo 
in, 246 ; dry-farm orchard in, 
252 ; pumping plants in, 342 ; 
first Dry-Farming Congress held 
in Denver, 374 ; present status 
of dry-farming in, 389. 

Colorado Basin, soil district, 76 ; 
status of dry-farming in, 388. 

Colorado, Canon of, description, 35. 

Colorado Station, first experiments 
on dry-farming, 366. 

Columbia Basin, description, 36 ; 
soil districts, 74 ; use of roller in, 
315 ; weeder used in, 314 ; be- 
ginnings of dry-farming in, 357 ; 
an originator of dry-farming, 
193 ; present status of dry-farm- 
ing in, 384. 

Commercial fertilizers, and dry- 
farming, 296. 

Composition, chemical composition 
of arid and humid soils, 68 ; of 
crops, 257-277 ; young plants 
rich in protein, 274 ; commer- 
cial value of superior quality of 



dry-farm crops, 278 ; variations 
due to climate, 271-274 ; varies 
with water supply, 267-271 ; a 
reason for variation in, 274-275 ; 
causes of variations in, 267. 

Continuous cropping, dangerous, 
203. 

Cooke, 369. 

Corn, 243 ; pounds water for one 
pound, 15, 16 ; depth of root 
penetration, 86, 87 ; root sys- 
tem, 83 ; water absorbed by 
seeds of, 209 ; repeated drying 
in germination, 218 ; amount to 
sow, 224 ; mechanical planters, 
320 ; harvesters for, 321 ; varia- 
tion in composition, 267 ; im- 
portance of humus for, 297 ; 
water and yield, 346. 

Cracked land, danger of, 141. 

Crimean wheat, 238. 

Crop, see also Plant; for dry-farm- 
ing, 232 ; for irrigation and dry- 
farming, 256 ; varieties, 234 
condition of good dry-farm, 234 
adaptation of, 232 ; care of, 226 
harrowing of, 162 ; not on fallow 
land, 124 ; composition of dry- 
farm, 257 ; nutritive substances 
in, 264 ; from dry-farms highly 
nutritious, 275 ; water in dry- 
farm, 262 ; yield varies with 
water applied, 345 ; producing 
power of rainfall, 18 ; soil- 
water necessary to mature, 118; 
effect on transpiration, 178 ; to 
prevent soil blowing, 198 ; special- 
izing in dry-farm, 279 ; problems, 
256. 

Cidtivation, see also Tillage; saves 
moisture, 152-156 ; experiments 
showing value of cultivation in 
reducing evaporation, 154-155 ; 
increases depth of soil-water, 116 ; 
effect on transpiration, 187 ; and 
humus, 198 ; and root systems, 
92 ; time of, 158 ; after rains. 



432 



INDEX 



162; early in spring, 159, 160; 
during season, 160 ; depth of, 
157 ; must destroy weeds, 162 ; 
of growing crops, 163 ; of rows 
of lucern, 248 ; of fall-sown crop 
in spring, 159 ; between rows 
of plants, 163 ; implements for 
soil cultivation, 310. 

Cultivators, 314. 

Currants, on dry-farms, 253. 

Dakotas, soils of, 74 ; type of rain- 
fall over, 40 ; wheats for, 236 ; 
milo in, 246. 

Davidson and Chase, 307. 

Defiance wheat, 240. 

Desert, essentially fertile, 58, 72, 73. 

Disk harrow, 311, 313. 

Disking, 414 ; after harvester, 127 ; 
after fall plowing, 129 ; fall- 
plowed land in spring, 129, 159 ; 
to reduce run-off, 98 ; crop in fall, 
226 ; crop in spring, 227. 

Dog Valley, state well in, 341. 

Drainage, plant food in drainage 
water, 65 ; in arid countries, 66. 

Drill, invented by Tull, 226, 317; 
types for sowing, 318. 

Drill culture, 225 ; and snow con- 
servations, 225. 

Drouth, defined, 49, 400, 402, 412; 
how to farm against, 416 ; year 
of drouth, 399 ; year of drouth 
disproved, 403-412 ; fallow in- 
dispensable in year of, 203 ; of 
1910, 411. 

Dry-farming, defined, 1 ; a mis- 
nomer, 2 ; a technical term, 4 ; 
vs. humid-farming, 4 ; fun- 
damental problems, 6, 9 ; theo- 
retical basis of, 11 ; climatic 
features of areas, 35 ; physical 
features of territory in United 
States, 35 ; areas in United 
States, 25-32 ; areas in world, 
32-34 ; soils, 50-80 ; three main 
conditions, 192 ; water the crit- 



ical element in, 203 ; and ma- 
chinery, 302, 327 ; crops for, 232 ; 
certainty of crop yield, 204 ; 
importance of steady productive 
power, 293 ; and irrigation go hand 
in hand, 350 ; total area in 
United States, 27 ; originated 
in several places, 193 ; system 
same in divers localities, 194 ; 
in a nutshell, 413. 

Dry-far7n, size of a dry-farm, 301. 

Dry-farmer, temperamental char- 
acteristics, 330 ; acreage for one 
man, 301. 

Dry-farming Congress, organization 
and history, 374 ; opinions on 
cultural methods, 194. 

" Dry-land agriculture,'' 4. 

Dry matter, and transpiration, 182- 
186 ; methods for determining 
water for, 12 ; water for one 
pound of, 12 ; water cost in 
arid countries, 17. 

Durra, 245. 

Durum wheat, 237. 

Ehermayer, 150, 155. 

Egypt, sands of Egypt fertile, 58. 

Electricity, electric motors, 322, 325 ; 
for pumping, 342. 

Elm, on dry-farms, 253. 

Emmer, 243. 

Engines, in dry-farming, 321. 

England, Boswell oats from, 241 ; 
steam plowing in, 323. 

Escobar, 244. 

Eser, 148. 

Europe, steam plowing in, 323. 

Evaporation, formation of water 
vapor, 132 ; factors increasing, 
133, 136 ; effect of temperature 
on water vapor, 133 ; from free 
water surface, 132 ; and relative 
humidity, 46 ; measure of arid- 
ity, 131 ; under humid and arid 
conditions, 149 ; possible evap- 
oration in arid districts, 131 ; 



INDEX 



433 



at various localities, 132; of 
capillary water, 137 ; loss of 
soil- water by, 165 ; causes of 
evaporation of soil-moisture, 160 ; 
conditions of evaporation from 
soils, 136 ; in cloudy weather, 
150 ; promoted by winds, 135 ; 
furthered by alkali, 149 ; in 
fall and winter, 133 ; chiefly 
at surface, 139-141 ; regulating, 
130 ; dry soils prevent, 148 ; 
effect of rapid top drying of soils, 
147-152 ; reduced by mulches, 
155 ; cultivation reduces, 152- 
156 ; fall plowing prevents, 127 ; 
a cause of transpiration, 174. 
Experiment Stations, work for dry- 
farming, 365, 371. 

Fall, evaporation in, 134. 

Fallow, see also Cultivation. 

Fallowing, 122-125, 413, 414; 
beneficial effects of, 188 ; di- 
minishes evaporation, 138 ; effect 
on transpiration, 188 ; to vary 
with climate, 125, 202, 203; 
in soil formation, 55 ; cause of 
failure of fallow experiments, 124 ; 
right kind of, 124 ; frequency of, 
125 ; in all dry-farm districts, 
194 ; hoed crops in place of, 200 ; 
and plowing, 193 ; and seed-bed, 
212 ; and amount to sow, 223 ; 
and fall planting, 200, 218; and 
crops, 124 ; danger of weeds on, 
124, 162; in rotations, 299; 
discussed by Dry-farming Con- 
gress, 195 ; when adopted by 
Campbell, 364 ; beginning of, 
in Columbia Basin, 357 ; in 
various states, 196, 197 ; re- 
sults on Barnes farm, 405 ; occa- 
sional, in Great Plains, 119; 
results at Montana Station, 202 ; 
Indian Head record, 408, 410 ; in 
Saskatchewan, 202. 

Farrell, 98, 215, 216. 

2f 



Farrell, Geo. L., early dry-farmer 

in Utah, 355. 
Fertility, see also Plant-food, Soil 

Fertility. 
Fertilizers, effect on transpiration, 

182, 186. 
Fescue grass, transpiration figures 

for, 185. 
Field bean, 250. 
Field pea, 249. 
Fig, on dry farms, 252. 
Fir, on dry-farms, 253. 
Fleming and Staulking, 343, 
Flood water, as source of perma- 
nent supply, 334. 
Flour, nutritive value of dry -farm, 

276. 
Foise wheat, 240. 
Forbes, 348. 

Fortier, 155, 158, 341, 342, 369. 
Foster, 369. 

France, olive industry in Tunis, 252. 
Frost, and fall planting, 216 ; and 

method of sowing, 225. 
Fruit, dry-farm orchards in Great 

Plains, 252 ; on irrigated farms, 

236. 
Fuller, 338. 
Furrow, drill furrow and sowing, 

225. 

Garden, preparation on a dry-farm, 
347. 

Gardner, 185. 

Gasoline, engines for pumping, 342 ; 
machinery in dry-farming, 322, 
325. 

Germany, emmer in, 243 ; first 
determinations of water vs. plant 
production in, 12 ; steam plowing 
in, 323 ; water absorption by 
seeds in, 209. 

Germ life, effect of pore-space on, 
102. 

Germination, see also Sowing ; con- 
ditions of, 205 ; mechanism of, 
208 ; effected by soil moisture, 



434 



INDEX 



209 ; best amount of water for, 
210 ; effect of nitrates on, 210 ; 
effect of incomplete, 217 ; and 
drill culture, 226. 

Glaciers, in soil formation, 53. 

Goodale, 206. 

Gooseberries, on dry-farms, 253. 

Grace, 301. 

Grain, root system, 83 ; relation of 
roots to, 216 ; ratio of straw 
and grain, 18 ; ratio to straw 
and climate, 261 ; cultivating 
grain between rows, 163. 

Granites, and clay soils, 57. 

Grapes, on dry-farms, 253, 386. 

Grasses, root system, 83 ; depth of 
roots, 88. 

Gravel, effect of gravel seams, 62, 

Gravitational soil-water, 104. 

Greasewood, 80. 

Great Basin, description, 35 ; geo- 
logical history of, 75 ; soils dis- 
trict of, 75 ; lime in soils of, 70 ; 
hygroscopic moisture in soils of, 
103; depth of soil-water, 112; 
cedars in, 251 ; fall sowing in, 
215 ; grapes in, 253 ; water in 
crops from, 264 ; present status 
of dry-farming in, 386. 

Great Plains, description, 35 ; soil, 
74 ; blowing of soils in, 198 ; 
conditions of water storage in 
soils, 115; water storage in soils 
of, 122 ; one difficulty of soil- 
water storage, 134 ; fall plowing 
in, 195 ; spring plowing in, 129 ; 
cultivation in, 162 ; and the 
fallow, 119, 197-202; sowing in, 
215 ; and Crimean wheats, 238 ; 
dry-farm orchards in, 252 ; rota- 
tions of crops in, 298 ; water in 
crops from, 264 ; an originator 
of dry-farming, 193 ; first scien- 
tific work on dry-farming, 367 ; 
beginnings of dry-farming in, 
358 ; originated dry -farming 
independently, 359 ; Campbell's 



work for, 362 ; reason for dry- 
farm failures, 358. 

Great Salt Lake, 75 ; entrance to, 
354. 

Greaves, Stewart and, 190, 263. 

Green manuring, 297. 

Growth, and transpiration, 183. 

Gutters, roof gutters source of water 
supply, 336. 

Gypsum, effect on soil structure, 
102. 

Hall, 261, 271, 291. 

Hardpan, definition and kinds, 
62. 

Harris, Fisher, president Dry- 
farming Congress, 376. 

Harrowing, see also Cultivation ; the 
dry-farm, 414 ; use of harrow 
for various purposes, 310 ; use 
of disk harrow, 311; smoothing 
harrow, 310 ; after plowing, 129 ; 
on growing crops, 227 ; crops in 
spring, 160. 

Harvester, combined harvester and 
thresher, 230, 321. 

Harvesting, 228-231 ; soil -water at, 
117; implements for, 320. 

Hay, water in, 262 ; nutritive value, 
275. 

Headden, 286. 

Header, see also Straw, Stubble; use 
on dry-farms, 228, 321 ; stubble, 
value in shading, 151 ; value of 
header stubble in transpiration, 
191 ; and soil fertility, 289. 

Hellriegel, 12, 184. 

Henderson, 369. 

Henry, 25, 38, 45. 

High Plateaus, 76. 

Hilgard, 51, 61, 68, 73, 77, 90, 351, 
357. 

History of Dry-farming, 351-381 ; 
Jethro Tull and dry-farming, 378 ; 
dry-farming originated independ- 
ently in four sections, 359 ; 
methods originated alike in all 



INDEX 



435 



districts, 360 ; beginnings of 
dry-farming in California, 357 ; 
Campbell's work, 361 ; begin- 
nings of dry-farming in Colum- 
bia Basin, 357 ; beginnings of 
dry-farming in Great Plains, 358 ; 
beginning of modern dry-farm- 
ing in Utah, 354 ; railroads and 
dry-farming, 370 ; the work of 
the experiment stations, 365 ; 
the Dry-farming Congress, 374 ; 
work by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture for dry- 
farming, 372 ; present status in 
California, 383 ; present status in 
Colorado and Rio Grande ba- 
sins, 388 ; present status of dry- 
farming in Columbia Basin, 384 ; 
present status of dry-farming, 
382-398 ; status in foreign coun- 
tries, 391 ; present status of dry- 
farming in Great Basin, 386 ; 
status in Great Plains, 389 ; 
status in Mountain States, 389. 

Hoed crops, in place of fallowing, 
200 ; in rotations, 299. 

Hoeing, possible hand hoeing, 141. 

Hogenson, 313. 

Holland, variation in plant compo- 
sition in Holland, 269. 

Homestead Bill, the Smoot-M ondell, 
for dry-farms, 425. 

Homesteads, on dry-farms, 332, 416. 

Hopkins, 185. 

Horsebeans, pounds water for one 
pound, 14. 

Hosceus, 84. 

Humid, defined, 24. 

Humid-farming, defined, 1, 4; 
vs. dry-farming, 4. 

Humidity, see Relative Humidity. 

Humus, in soils, 58 ; nitrogen in, 
59, 71 ; and fallowing, 198 ; and 
green manuring, 297 ; and header 
stubble, 198 ; and lime, 70. 

Hunt, 225. 

Hygroscopic moisture, 102, 137. 

2f 



Idaho, area, 26 ; soils of, 75 ; evap- 
oration in, 132 ; fallowing in, 
197 ; milo in, 246 ; wheats in, 
240 ; present status of dry-farm- 
ing, 385, 386, 389. 

Idaho Station, dry-farming in, 369. 

Illinois, water needs of crops on 
soils of, 185. 

Implements, soe Machinery, Engines; 
for dry-farming, 301-327 ; for a 
dry-farm, 327 ; steam and other 
motive power, 321. 

India, sands of India fertile, 58 ; 
field- water capacity of soils, 110; 
pumping plants in, 341 ; dry- 
farming, 353. 

Indian, corn grown by American, 
244. 

Indian Head, see also Saskatch- 
ewan. 

Indian Head farm, longest record 
in Great Plains, 359, 406. 

Indian Head Station, dry-farming 
in, 370. 

Insoluble residue, in soils, 68. 

Irrigation, see also Water; and dry- 
farming, 328-350 ; indispensable 
in arid regions, 331 ; supple- 
mentary only to natural precipi- 
tation, 345 ; and plant growth, 
261 ; development of roots under, 
90 ; economy in small applica- 
tions, 346 ; case of economical 
irrigation in Arizona, 348 ; use 
of little water in, 344 ; advan- 
tages of, 329 ; why mostly prac- 
ticed in antiquity, 352. 

Jardine, 200, 236, 240. 

Jensen, 190. 

Jerusalem, corn, 245. 

Johnson, 154. 

Jujube tree, on dry-farms, 252. 

Kafir corn, 245. 

Kansas, area, 27 ; type of rainfall 
over, 40 ; soils of, 74 ; climate 



436 



INDEX 



and plant composition in, 272 ; 

deep and fall plowing in, 195 ; 

milo in, 245 ; meat in oats from, 

261 ; windmill pumping in, 344 ; 

present status of dry-farming in, 

389. 
Kansas Station, dry-farming in, 

370. 
Kearney, 253, 352. 
Kharkow wheat, 238. 
Kherson oats, 241. 
King, 14, 85, 123. 

Layton, Christopher, dry-farm pio- 
neer, 355. 

Leaching, of soils, 60. 

Leaves, proportion of, 260, 261 ; 
work of, 171 ; stomata in, 172 ; 
loss of water through leaf sto- 
mata, 174. 

Leather, 110. 

LeClerc and Leavitt, 272. 

LeConte and Tait, 344. 

Leguminous crops, 249 ; and fer- 
tility, 291 ; and nitrogen, 296 ; 
in rotations, 299. 

Lentils, water absorbed by seeds of, 
209. 

Lime, in soils, 69 ; effect on soil 
structure, 101 ; and indirect 
fertilizer, 70 ; and humus, 70 ; 
and hardpan, 64 ; and bacterial 
life in soil, 291. ^ 

Linfield, 369. 

Little Club wheat, 240. 

Live stock, and dry-farming, 293- 
296. 

Loam, soils defined, 57. 

Location, of dry-farm, 413. 

Locust, on dry-farm, 253. 

Lucern or alfalfa, 247 ; as nitro- 
gen gatherer, 249, 297 ; depth of 
roots, 83, 88, 90, 247; amount 
to sow, 224 ; water and yield, 
346; seed, 248; water in, 262; 
cause of failures, 249. 

Lyon, 74. 



Macaroni wheat, 237. 

McColl, 32, 393. 

MacDonald, 393 ; Governor, called 
first Dry-farming Congress, 374. 

MacDougall, 131, 178. 

Machinery, see also Implements; 
dry-farming made possible by, 
302. 

Maine, composition of flour from, 
276. 

Malad Creek, 355. 

Mammoth potatoes, 254. 

Manuring, see also Soil Fertility; 
effect on transpiration, 185 ; and 
soil fertility, 293 ; diminishes evap- 
oration, 138 ; in rotations, 299. 

Marl, 65. 

Martin, 353. 

Mason, 252. 

Mayer, 269. 

Mead, 341, 344. 

Mennonites, and Crimean wheats, 
238. 

Merrill, 16, 224, 327, 368, 378. 

Mesquite, on dry-farm lands, 251, 
305. 

Mexico, dry-farming in, 353 ; evap- 
oration in, 132 ; beans in, 250 ; 
corn in, 244 ; present status of 
dry-farming in, 391. 

Middle West, composition of flour 
from, 276. 

Millet, pounds water for one pound, 
14. 

Milling products, nutritive value of 
dry-farm, 276. 

Milo, 245. 

Mineral matter, in crops, 264. 

Minnesota, area, 27; soils of, 74. 

Mississippi Valley, description, 35. 

Mondell, president Dry-farming 
Congress; Smoot-Mondell Home- 
stead Bill, 425. 

Montana, area, 26 ; type of rainfall 
over, 40 ; soils of, 74 ; deep and 
fall plowing in, 195 ; fallowing in, 
196 ; pumping plants in, 342 ; 



INDEX 



437 



meat in oats from, 261 ; present 
status of dry-farming, 385, 389 ; 
fourth Dry-farming Congress in 
Billings, 377. 

Montana Station, dry-farm work 
begun, 369; on fallowing, 202; 
water stored in soil, 120. 

Mormon, pioneers began reclama- 
tion of West, 365. 

Morton, J. S., Secretary of Agri- 
culture, 372. 

Motherwell, record of dry -farm, 410. 

Mulch, see also Cultivation; value 
in reducing evaporation, 155 ; 
explanation of effect of mulch, 
152 ; natural mulch in arid cli- 
mates, 149 ; on different soils, 
149 ; effect of varying depth of, 
158 ; implements for making a 
soil, 310. 

Natural precipitation, see Rainfall. 

Nebraska, area, 26 ; type of rainfall 
over, 41 ; soils of, 74 ; deep and 
fall plowing in, 195 ; fallowing 
in, 197 ; storing the rains in the 
soil, 115; water stored in soils 
of, 122; wheats for, 236; milo 
in, 246 ; present status of dry- 
farming, 389. 

Nessler, 139, 154. 

Nevada, area, 26 ; type of rainfall 
over, 39 ; soils of, 75 ; evapora- 
tion in, 132 ; fallowing in, 196 ; 
present status of dry-farming in, 
386. 

Nevada Station, dry-farming in, 
369. 

Newell, 32. 

New Mexico, area, 26 ; type of 
rainfall over, 39 ; soils of, 74, 76 ; 
evaporation in, 132 ; fallowing in, 
197 ; experiments on pumping, 
343 ; mesquite and cacti on dry- 
farm lands, 305 ; milo in, 245 ; 
- preset status of dry-farming in, 
388, 390. 



Nitrates, and transpiration, 190 ; 
effect on germination, 210. 

Nitrogen, in arid humus, 59, 71 ; 
critical element of soil fertility, 
292 ; explanation of accumula- 
tion of, 292 ; from leguminous 
crops, 296 ; from lucern, 249. 

Nobbe, 84, 85. 

Norris, Governor, president Dry- 
farming Congress, 377. 

North Dakota, area, 26 ; fallowing 
in, 197 ; meat in oats from, 261 ; 
present status of dry -farming in, 
389. 

North Dakota Station, dry-farming 
in, 370. 

Nowoczek, 217. 

Nutrients, see Plant-foods; in crops, 
264. 

Oak, on dry-farm, 253. 

Oats, 241 ; pounds water for one 
pound, 14, 15 ; depth of roots, 
88 ; water absorbed by seeds of, 
209 ; repeated drying in germina- 
tion, 218 ; amount to sow, 224 ; 
meat in oats, 261 ; in rotations, 
299 ; variation in composition, 
268, 269. 

Odessa Station, 370. 

Office of Dry Land Investigations, 
373. 

Ohio potatoes, 254. 

Oil, crude oil engines for pumping, 
342. 

Oklahoma, area, 27 ; type of rain- 
fall over, 40 ; soils of, 74 ; milo 
in, 245 ; present status of dry- 
farming in, 390. 

Olin, 357. 

Olive, dry-farm olive orchards in 
United States, 252 ; industry in 
Tunis, 252 ; trees in Tunis in 
early days, 353 ; tax of oil from 
Tunis, 353. 

Oregon, area, 26 ; type of rainfall 
in, 39 ; soils of, 75 ; evaporation 



438 



INDEX 



in, 132; fertility of dry-farms, 284; 

wheats in, 240 ; present status 

of dry-farming in, 384, 386. 
Oregon Station, dry-farming in, 370. 
Organic matter, see Humus. 
Osmosis, process of, 168. 
Oxygen, in air and carbon dioxid, 

172 ; in soil formation, 55 ; in 

germination, 207. 

Pacific, type of rainfall, 39. 

Packer, subsurface, 316. 

Pagnoul, 185. 

Palestine, present status of dry- 
farming in, 397. 

Palouse Blue Stem wheat, 240. 

Palouse country, 385. 

Parsons, 252. 

Payne, 358, 367. 

Peach, dry-farm peach orchard in 
Utah, 251. 

Peas, pounds water for one pound, 
14, 15, 16 ; water absorbed by 
seeds of, 209 ; repeated drying 
in germination, 218 ; for nitrogen, 
297 ; variations in composition, 
268 ; field, 249. 

Pearl potatoes, 254. 

Phosphoric acid, in soils, 69. 

Physical agencies, of soil formation, 
52. 

Pine, on dry-farms, 253. 

Pinion pine, on dry-farm lands, 
305. 

Plant, see also Crops; in soil for- 
mation, 55 ; carbon in plants, 171 ; 
proportions of plant parts, 258 ; 
movement of water through 
plant, 170 ; vigor of plant and 
transpiration, 179 ; effect of age 
transpiration, 177. 

Plant-foods, enumeration of, 169 ; 
total and available, 282 ; in arid 
and humid soils, 67, 68 ; how 
they enter plant, 168 ; move- 
ment through plant, 170 ; effect 
on transpiration, 177, 180. 



Planting, thick planting and evap- 
oration, 151. 

Plow, for dry-farming, 305-309 ; 
moldboard type, 306 ; disk type, 
307 ; subsoil er, 309 ; need of better 
knowledge for dry-farming, 309. 

Plowing, the dry-farm, 413 ; effect 
on transpiration, 186 ; diminishes 
evaporation, 138 ; as practiced in 
various states, 195 ; deep and fall 
plowing in all dry-farm districts, 
194 ; depth of plowing in arid and 
humid soils, 126 ; deep plowing 
in arid soils, 62 ; deep plowing 
defined, 126 ; deep plowing for 
water storage, 125-126 ; reasons 
for fall plowing, 127 ; fall plowing 
for water storage, 126, 127 ; fall 
plowing prevents evaporation, 
127 ; fertility effects of fall plow- 
ing, 127 ; time for fall plowing, 
128 ; disking after fall plowing, 
129 ; time for spring plowing, 
128 ; in spring prevents evapo- 
ration, 159 ; in spring of fall- 
plowed land, 159 ; in spring after 
fall plowing, 129 ; disking fall- 
plowed land in spring, 159 ; and 
fallowing, 193 ; rough land 
catches moisture, 128 ; to in- 
crease pore-space, 102 ; to reduce 
run-off, 98; wet soils, 101, 128; 
disadvantages of steam plowing, 
323. 

Plums, on dry-farm, 252, 253. 

Pod-bearing crops, 249. 

Poltava Station, 299, 370. 

Pore-space, of soils, 101 ; of gypsum 
soils, 102. 

Potash, in soils, 69. 

Potatoes, 254 ; depth of roots of, 
88 ; mechanical planters, 320 
pounds water for one pound, 15 
variations in composition, 268 
water and yield, 346. 

Powell, Major J. W., on early dry- 
farming, 355. 



INDEX 



439 



Precipitation, see Rainfall. 

Problems, of dry-farming, 6. 

Protein, in plants, 266 ; acquired 
early by plants, 274 ; function 
of, 264 ; more protein in dry-farm 
crops, 269. 

Puddling, to be avoided, 159. 

Pumping, area irrigated from pump- 
ing, 341 ; crop possibilities of 
small plant in Arizona, 348 ; 
water for dry-farms, 341 ; by 
windmills, 341 ; cost of, in Ari- 
zona, 344 ; cost of pumping in 
California, 344 ; cost of pumping 
in Kansas, 344 ; cost of, in New 
Mexico, 343. 

Quality, valuation of dry-farm 
crops, 257 ; on basis of water 
content, 263. 

Rabbit-brush, 80. 

Railroads, and dry-farming, 363, 
370. 

Rainfall, see also Natural Precipita- 
tion, Winter Precipitation; rec- 
ords insufficient in dry-farm 
territory, 28 ; distribution over 
earth-surface, 33 ; types of 
distribution, 38-40 ; distribution 
less important, 130 ; in spring or 
summer causes loss of soil-water, 
130, 160 ; average does not 
change, 400 ; chief factor in de- 
termining aridity, 25 ; over one 
acre in pounds, 19 ; and native 
vegetation, 79 ; how disposed of, 
97; depth of penetration, 114; 
downward movement in soil, 60 ; 
amount stored in soils, 114-115; 
effect of small rains on soil- 
moisture, 113; importance of 
moist subsoil in storm, 116; 
proportion stored in Great Plains 
soils, 122 ; amount stored in Utah 
soils, 121 ; and plant growth, 
261 ; crop-producing power of, 



18, 20 ; limits for dry-farming, 
1, 22; dry -farming with less 
than 10 inches, 357, 385 ; and 
amount to sow, 222 ; and fall 
sowing, 216 ; irrigation supple- 
mentary only to, 345 ; stored in 
cisterns, 336. 

Reclamation Service, United States, 
on area of desert land, 29. 

Record, continuous record of Barnes 
farm, 403 ; continuous record of 
Indian Head Station, 406. 

Red chaff wheat, 240. 

Red clover, pounds water for one 
pound, 14. 

Red Fife wheat, 237. 

Red Russian wheat, 240. 

Relative Humidity, defined, 135 ; 
over dry-farm territory, 46 ; 
effects of, in New York and Salt 
Lake City, 135 ; influence upon 
transpiration, 176. 

Reservoirs, for flood water, 334 ; 
building, 337. 

Rio Grande Basin, status of dry- 
farming in, 388. 

Rocks, crystalline rocks and clay 
soils, 57. 

Rocky Mountains, description of the, 
35. 

Roller, use of, on crop, 226, 227, 
315. 

Root-hairs, organs of absorption, 
167 ; immersion in soil-water, 
168. 

Roots, functions of, 81 ; kinds of, 
82; taproot, 83; fibrous, 83; 
systems, 81 ; extent of, 84 ; 
weight of, 84, 85 ; depth of pene- 
tration, 86 ; direction of develop- 
ment, 89 ; development under 
arid conditions, 88 ; develop- 
ment under irrigation, 90 ; sys- 
tems in arid vs. humid climates, 
92 ; conditions of deep rooting, 
93 ; deep root systems and fer- 
tility, 287, 292; and deep culti- 



440 



INDEX 



vation, 92 ; and pore-space, 102 ; 
water taken through roots, 1 1 ; 
water absorbed by, 94 ; their 
place in absorption, 166 ; effect 
on transpiration, 179 ; and fall 
planting, 214, 216; and depth 
of planting, 221 ; proportion of, 
260, 261 ; relation to straw and 
grain, 216. 
Rosen, 299. 
Rotation, of crops in dry-farming, 

298. 
Rothayyisted Station, on fertility and 

transpiration, 184, 271. 
Run-off, 98. 

Rural New Yorker potatoes, 254. 
Russia, stations for study of dry- 
farming, 370 ; fallowing in, 197 ; 
crop rotations in, 299 ; emmer in, 
243 ; durum wheats from, 237 ; 
home of Crimean wheats, 238 ; 
home of Red Fife wheat, 237 ; 
present status of dry-farming in, 
394. 
Rye, 243 ; pounds water for one 
pound, 14 ; water absorbed by 
seeds of, 209 ; amount to sow, 
224. 

Sacks, 180. 

Sagebrush, 79 ; clearing land of, 
302 ; water need of, 178. 

Salisbury, Joshua, early dry-farmer 
in Utah, 355. 

Salts, effect on evaporation, 138. 

Sanborn, 84. 

Sand, in soils, 58 ; origin of, 58 ; 
characteristics of arid soil, 58 ; 
fertility of arid soil, 58 ; soil, and 
dry-farming, 58 ; soils defined, 
57 ; soils respond to cultivation, 
157; depth of planting in, 221. 

Sanfoin, 251. 

San Joaquin Basin, 77. 

Sanpete Valley, lime in soils of, 70. 

Saskatchewan, see also Indian Head ; 
fertility of dry-farms, 285 ; deep 



and fall plowing in, 195 ; fallow- 
ing in, 197, 202. 
Schumacher, 84. 
''Scientific agriculture,^' 4. 
Sco field, 163. 

Season, short season in dry-farming, 
260. 

Seed-bed, 212. 

Seeds, germination of, 205 ; ab- 
sorption of water, 209, 210; 
value of home-grown, 233 ; to be 
.secured from arid regions, 273, 
274 ; size of seed, 224 ; propor- 
tion of, 260, 261 ; lucern, 248. 

Seepage, loss of soil-water by, 165. 

Sego lily, 256. 

Semiarid, defined, 24'; area inter- 
ested in dry-farming, 29. 

'' Semiarid-f arming," 4. 

Shading, effect of, 150. 

Shadscale, 80. 

Shaw, 251. 

Shepherdia, depth of roots of, 90, 
91. 

Shrubs, for dry-farms, 251. 

Sierra Nevadas, description of, 36. 

Silica, clay from combined, 57 ; 
sand from uncombined, 58. 

Silver poplar, on dry-farms, 253. 

Sixty-Day oats, 241. 

Small grains, see Wheat, Oats, 
Barley, Rye, Grains. 

Smith, 344. 

Smoot-Mondell homestead Bill, 425. 

Snow, drill culture and snow conser- 
vation, 225. 

Snowfall, over dry-farm territory, 
42. 

Snyder, 74. 

Soil-air, effect of pore-space on, 
102 ; composition of, 208. 

Soil Culture and Farm Journal, 
362. 

Soil Fertility, see also Plant-food; 
summary of explanations of, 292 ; 
of dry-farm, 415 ; critical ele- 
ments of, 283 ; nitrogen the 



INDEX 



441 



critical element, 292 ; apparent 
increase under dry-farming, 283 ; 
accumulation in upper layers, 
287 ; stubble and, 228 ; reasons 
for dry-farm fertility, 286-292; 
effect of continuous cropping, 
282 ; maintaining soil fertility, 
281-300 ; possible equilibrium of, 
293 ; coming great question, 300; 
and amount to sow, 222 ; and 
transpiration, 183—186; effect on 
transpiration, 182, 191 ; evapora- 
tion decreases with, 138 ; prob- 
lem in California, 383 ; problem 
in Great Basin, 387. 
Soil-water, see also Water, Capillary 
Water; for loss of, see also Trans- 
piration; in virgin soils, 112; 
why desert soils contain moisture, 
148 ; how rain-water is changed 
into, 108-110; total water capac- 
ity, 104 ; hygroscopic moisture, 
102, 137; capillary, 106; field 
capacity for capillary, 107 ; grav- 
itational, 104 ; downward move- 
ment, 111-115; dependent on 
pore-space, 102 ; sinks deeper 
wath cultivation, 116; possible 
amount stored in soils, 119; 
storage by fallowing, 122-125 ; 
thickness of film in per cents, 108 ; 
effect of thinning the film, 147 ; 
at harvesting, 117; danger of 
dry soil, 117; importance of 
moist subsoil, 116; demonstra- 
tion that it may mature crops, 
95; necessary to mature crops, 
118 ; stored in Great Plains soils, 
122 ; amount stored in Utah 
experiments, 121 ; methods of 
loss, 165 ; manner of upward 
movement, 152 ; how it reaches 
surface, 141 ; causes of evapora- 
tion of, 160; conditions of evap- 
oration from, 136 ; evaporation 
proportioned to, 138 ; dissipated 
by winds, 135 ; evaporation of 



capillary, 137 ; effect of rapid 
top drying of soils, 147-152 ; 
makes independent of rain distri- 
bution, 130 ; in spring and mid- 
summer, 143 ; effect on absorp- 
tion, 168 ; movement through 
plants, 170 ; effect on transpira- 
tion, 180 ; and amount to sow, 
222; germination and, insuffi- 
cient, 218 ; effect on germination, 
209. 
Soils, dry-farm, 50-80 ; importance 
in dry-farming, 50 ; formation of, 
physical agencies, 52 ; chemical 
agencies, 54 ; physical constit- 
uents of, 56 ; sizes of particles, 
99 ; composition of humid and 
arid, 67, 68 ; characteristics of 
arid soils, 56, 71 ; definition and 
characteristics of topsoil, 59 ; 
characteristic structure of arid, 
61 ; structure of, 99-101 ; humus 
in arid, 58 ; depth of, in arid 
countries, 61 ; depth of dry- 
farming, 62, 78 ; favorable for 
dry-farming, 77 ; pore-space of, 
101 ; alkali, 66 ; blowing of soils 
in Great Plains, 198 ; breaking 
soil crust in spring, 227 ; arid 
soil deficient in clay, 58 ; native 
vegetation of arid, 79 ; effect of 
kind, on transpiration, 187, 188 ; 
for dry-farm, 413 ; deep soil 
needed, 140 ; weak and strong, 
58 ; physical classification of, 
57 ; judging of, 78 ; divisions of 
the United States, 74 ; depth in 
soil-water studies, 1 19 ; field 
capacity for water, 107-110; 
danger of cracks, 141 ; danger of 
low soil-water, 117; dry surface 
soil to prevent evaporation, 150 ; 
effect of rapid top drying, 147- 
152 ; natural mulch on different, 
149 ; calcareous soils form good 
mulch, 157 ; civilization and arid, 
73. 



442 



INDEX 



Soluble silica, in soils, 70. 

Sonora wheat, 240. 

Sorauer, 12, 178, 183. 

Sorghums, 244. 

South Dakota, area, 26 ; deep and 
fall plowing in, 195. 

South Dakota Station, dry-farming 
in, 370 ; present status of dry- 
farming, 389. 

Sowing, see also Germination, 205- 
228, 415; and seed-bed, 212; 
failures due to, 205 ; implements 
for sowing, 317 ; method of, 225 ; 
time of, 212 ; in fall, 212 ; in fall, 
disadvantages of, 214 ; in fall, 
when preferable, 215 ; in fall and 
fallowing, 218; in fall and root 
system, 216 ; in fall, right time 
of, 216; in spring, when prefer- 
able, 215; depth of , 220; quantity 
for, 222 ; in various sections, 215. 

Spalding, 178. 

Spring, cultivation in early, 159 ; 
if wet, causes loss of soil-water, 
160. 

Springs, source of water, 334. 

Spruce, on dry-farms, 253. 

State aid, for dry-farm studies, 368. 

Steam, machinery in dry-farming, 
321. 

Sterns, proportion of, 260, 261. 

Stewart, 284. 

Stewart and Greaves, 190, 263, 271. 

" St. John's Bread," on dry-farms, 
252. 

Stockbridge, 154. 

Stomata, description, number, and 
function, 172-174. 

Stooling, 223. 

Storing water, in soil, 94 ; depend- 
ent on pore-space, 102 ; by fall 
plowing, 126 ; by deep plowing, 
125; in Great Plains soils, 122. 

Straw, from dry-farms very nutri- 
tious, 275 ; header straw to 
retard evaporation, 150 ; header 
stubble conserves soil- water, 155 ; 



not to be burned, 156 ; ratio 
straw to kernels, 18 ; ratio to 
grain and climate, 261 ; relation 
of roots to, 216. 

Strawbridge, 393. 

Stubble, see also Header, Straw; 
decay of header, 191, 230 ; for 
header and fertility, 290 ; header 
stubble and fertility, 228 ; header 
stubble and humus, 198 ; value 
of header stubble in transpira- 
tion, 191. 

Sub-humid area, and dry-farming, 
29 ; defined, 24. 

Sub-Pacific, type of rainfall, 39. 

Subsoil, characteristics of arid, 60 ; 
distinction between soil and, 61 ; 
importance of moist, 116; may 
be turned up in arid countries, 
126;! meaning in arid countries, 
59. 

Subsoiling, and dry-farming, 126; 
an advantage of, 141 ; how 
accomplished, 308. 

Subsurface packer, 316; invented, 
362. 

Subsurface packing, disadvantages 
of, 364. 

Subterranean, water, quantity of, 
338. 

Sugar beets, on dry-farms, 254 ; on 
irrigated farms, 236 ; variation 
in composition, 268 ; water and 
yield, 346. 

Summer rains, cause loss of soil- 
water, 160 ; sometimes detri- 
mental, 130. 

Summer tillage, see Cultivation and 
Fallowing. 

Sunflotoers, pounds water for one 
pound, 14. 

Sunlight, effect on transpiration, 
177. 

Sunshine, over dry-farm territory, 
46. 

Swedish Select oats, 241. 

Sycamore fig, on dry-farms, 252. 



INDEX 



443 



Tarahumari Indians, as dry-farm- 
ers, 353. 

Temperature, and soil formation, 52 ; 
of dry-farm territory, 42 ; factor 
in transpiration, 177 ; in germi- 
nation, 206. 

Tennessee Winter barley, 242. 

Texas, area, 27 ; type of rainfall 
over, 40 ; soils of, 74 ; evapora- 
tion in, 132 ; climate and plant 
composition in, 272 ; milo in, 
245 ; present status of dry-farm- 
ing in, 390. 

Texas Station, dry-farming in, 370. 

Thames, transpiration in water 
from, 180. 

Thresher, combined with harvester, 
230, 321. 

Tillage, see Cultivation, Mulch; "is 
manure," 204; "is moisture," 
204. 

Tilth, good tilth, 101. 

Tomato, water need of, 178. 

Tooele County, Utah, early dry- 
farming in, 356. 

Topography, of dry-farm territory, 
35-38. 

Traction engines, 321. 

Transpiration, compared with evap- 
oration, 166 ; value of, 175 ; 
evap ^ration a cause of, 174 ; 
conditions influencing, 175 ; and 
plant-food, 180 ; and header 
stubble, 191 ; effect of stopping, 
175 ; for a pound dry matter, 
182 ; loss of soil- water by, 165 ; 
regulating the, 165, 186. 

Transvaal, fallowing in, 197 ; steam 
plowing in, 323. 

Trees, extent of root development, 
91 ; for dry-farms, 251. 

Tschaplowitz, 183. 

Tull, Jethro, 204, 226, 317, 362; 
life and works, 378. 

Tunis, cultivating wheat in, 163 ; 
olive industry in, 252 ; early 
dry-farming in Tunis, 352. 



Turkey, fallowing in, 197; present 
status of dry-farming in, 396; 
wheat, 238. 

United States, rainfall over, 25; 
soil divisions of, 74. 

United States Department of Agri- 
culture, 185, 197, 233, 237, 372, 
373. 

United States Weather Bureau, 25, 
38, 372. 

Utah, area, 26; type of rainfall in, 39; 
soils of, 75, 76; increase in fer- 
tility of, 228 ; evaporation in, 
132 ; deep and fall plowing in, 
195 ; water storage from fall 
plowing, 127 ; fallowing in, 196 ; 
depth of roots in, 90 ; water 
absorption by seeds in, 209 ; 
run-off from torrential rain, 98 ; 
water requirements of plants in 
Utah, 16; drouth of 1910, 411; 
wells on Utah deserts, 339, 340 ; 
milo in, 246 ; dry-farm peach 
orchard in, 251 ; size of a dry- 
farm in, 301 ; continuous record 
of Barnes farm, 403 ; composi- 
tion of flour from, 276 ; origi- 
nated dry-farming, 193, 354, 359 ; 
present status of dry-farming in, 
386 ; second Dry-Farming Con- 
gress in Salt Lake City, 376 ; 
state aid for dry-farm studies, 
368. 

Utah Station, 84, 109, 112, 120, 
124, 140, 138, 151, 155, 158, 
185, 187, 261, 267, 345, 368. 

Varieties, see also Crops; need of 

standard wheat, 240. 
Vegetables, on dry-farms, 254 ; on 

irrigated farms, 236. 
Vegetation, native vegetation on 

arid soils, 79. 
Vernon, Lovett, and Scott, 343. 
Vetch, 251 ; for nitrogen, 297. 



444 



INDEX 



Vibration, effect on transpiration, 

177. 
Virgin soil, to lie fallow after 

breaking, 140. 

Wagner, 154, 155. 

Washington, area, 26; type of 
rainfall in, 39 ; soils of, 75 ; fal- 
lowing in, 196 ; wheats in, 240 ; 
dry-farming in, 357 ; fifth Dry- 
farming Congress in Spokane, 
377; present status of dry- 
farming in, 384. 

Washington Station, dry-farming in, 
369. 

Water, see also Soil-water, 94 ; the 
critical element in dry-farming, 
1, 203, 204; the scarcity of free 
water in arid districts, 331 ; 
scarcity of water and livestock, 
295 ; sources of, 333 ; solvent 
action in soil formation, 54 ; 
moving water in soil formation, 
52 ; freezing water in soil forma- 
tion, 52 ; saline ingredients, 340 ; 
sources and quantity of subter- 
ranean water, 338 ; storing in 
soil, 94 ; surface, evaporation 
from free, 132 ; absorption of 
water by seeds, 210 ; in germi- 
nation, 205 ; absorbed by roots 
only, 94 ; movement of water 
through plant, 170 ; rate of move- 
ment through plant, 170 ; evap- 
orated through stomata on leaves, 
173; for one pound of dry matter, 
12 ; in dry-farm crops, 262 ; 
pumping water for dry-farms, 
341 ; use of little water in irriga- 
tion, 344 ; carried in pipes, 347 ; 
case of economical use of, in Ari- 
zona, 348. 
Water-table, distance in arid soils, 

105. 
Water vapor, formation of, 132 ; 

held in air, 133-134. 
Waves, in soil formation, 53. 



Weathering, 51 ; depth of, 60. 
Weeds, cause loss of soil moisture, 
162 ; abhorred by dry-farmer, 
124 ; on the dry-farm, 414 ; 
disk harrow to destroy, 313 ; 
Utah weeder, 313 ; discussed by 
Dry-farming Congress, 196. 

Wells, as source of water, 339. 

Wheat, classification for dry-farm- 
ing, 236 ; on dry-farms, 234 ; 
pounds of water for one pound, 
14, 16 ; water absorbed by seeds 
of, 209 ; repeated drying in ger- 
mination, 218 ; amount to sow, 
224 ; depth of roots, 88 ; varia- 
tion in composition, 268 ; effect 
of climate on composition, 272 ; 
composition in humid and semi- 
arid United States, 270, 271; 
water in, 263 ; spring wheat in 
rotations, 299 ; dry-farm wheat 
in California, 383 ; durum, 237 ; 
value of fall sowing of, 215 ; 
spring, 236 ; semisoft winter, 
239; Turkey, Kharkow, and 
Crimean, 238; winter, 238; 
winter wheat in rotations, 299 ; 
water and yield, 346. 

White Australian wheat, 240. 

Whitman, Marcus, pioneer of Co- 
lumbia Basin, 357. 

Whitney, 112, 149. 

Wiley, 263. 

Wilson, James, Secretary of Agri- 
culture, 372. 

Wilting, stomata when wilting 
occurs, 173. 

Wind, and winter killing, 214 ; see 
also Blowing; over dry-farm 
territory, 47 ; effect on water in 
air, 135 ; effect in rapid top 
drying of soils, 148 ; effect on 
transpiration, 177 ; in soil for- 
mation, 53. 

Windmill, conditions for success, 
342; for pumping, 341. 

Winter, evaporation in, 134. 



INDEX 



445 



Winter-killing, cause of, 214 ; and 
amount to sow, 223. 

Winter precipitation, amount stored 
in soil, 115. 

Winter wheats, 238. 

Wisconsin, water requirements of 
plants in Wisconsin, 15 ; meat in 
oats from, 261. 

Wollny, 12. 

Woodward, 180, 183. 

World, dry-farm area of world, 32. 

Wyoming, area, 26 ; type of rain- 
fall over, 40 ; soils of, 74 ; evap- 



oration in, 132 ; deep and fall 
plowing in, 195 ; pumping plants 
in, 342 ; Wyoming Station, be- 
ginnings of dry-farming in, 369 ; 
third Dry-farming Congress in 
Cheyenne, 376 ; present status 
of dry-farming in, 389. 



Year, of drouth, 399 ; of drouth, 

defined, 402. 
Young, Brigham., entrance to Great 

Salt Lake Valley, 354. 



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